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Stories behind inventions

Who set up the world's first website? When was it? Any idea how large the first commercial microwave oven was? Did you know two inventors, working independently, came up with near-identical integrated circuits at about the same time? Who were they? Read on to find out the answers and the backstories of a few other inventions

Connecting the world

In 1969, the Internet took its first baby steps as Arpanet, a network created by the United States Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). It connected universities and research centres, but its use was restricted to a few million people.

Then in the 1990s, the technology made a quantum jump. Tim Berners-Lee, an English software consultant wrote a program called 'Enquire’, named after 'Enquire Within Upon Everything', a Victorian-age encyclopaedia he had used as a child. He was working for CERN in Switzerland at the time and wanted to organise all his work so that others could access it easily through their computers. He developed a language coding system called HTML or HyperText Markup Language, a location unique to every web page called URL (Universal Resource Locator) and a set of protocols or rules (HTTP or Hyper Text Transfer Protocols) that allowed these pages to be linked together on the Internet. Berners-Lee is credited with setting up the world's first website in 1991.

 

Berners-Lee did not earn any money from his inventions. However, others such as Marc Andreessen, who co-founded Netscape in 1994, became one of the Web's first millionaires.

It began with a bar of chocolate!

The discovery that microwaves could cook food super quickly was purely accidental. In 1945, American physicist Percy Spencer was testing a magnetron tube engineered to produce very short radio waves for radar systems, when the chocolate bar in his pocket melted. Puzzled that he hadn't felt the heat, Spencer placed popcorn kernel near the tube, and in no time, the popcorn began crackling. His company Raytheon developed this idea further and in 1947, the first commercial microwave oven was introduced – all of 1.5 metres high and weighing 340 kg!

Since it was too expensive to mass-produce, Raytheon went back to the drawing board and in the 1950s, came out with a microwave the size of a small refrigerator. A few years later came the first regular-sized oven-far cheaper and smaller than the previous models.

Chip-sized marvel

A microchip, often called a "chip" or an integrated circuit (IC), is what makes modern computers more compact and faster. Rarely larger than 5 cm in size and manufactured from a semi-conducting material, a chip contains intricate electronic circuits.

Two separate inventors, working independently, invented near-identical integrated circuits at about the same time! In the late 1950s, both American engineer Jack Kilby (Texas Instruments) and research engineer Robert Noyce (Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation) were working on the same problem- how to pack in the maximum electrical components in minimal space. It occurred to them that all parts of a circuit, not just the transistor, could be made on a single chip of silicon, making it smaller and much easier to produce.

In 1959, both the engineers applied for patents, and instead of battling it out, decided to cooperate to improve chip technology. In 1961, Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation launched the first commercially available integrated circuit. This IC had barely five components and was the size of a small finger. All computers began using chips, and chips also helped create the first electronic portable calculators. Today an IC, smaller than a coin, can hold millions of transistors!

Keeping pace with the heart

Pacemakers send out electrical signals to the heart to regulate erratic heartbeats. Powered by electricity, early pacemakers were as big as televisions, with a single wire or 'lead' being implanted in the patient's heart. A patient could move only as far as the wire would let them and electricity breakdowns were a major cause of worry!

In 1958, a Swedish surgeon and an engineer came together to invent the first battery-powered external pacemaker. Around the same time, American electrical engineer Wilson Greatbatch was creating a machine to record heartbeats. Quite by accident, he realised that by making some changes, he was getting a steady electric pulse from the small device. After two years of research, Greatbatch unveiled the world's first successful implantable pacemaker that could surgically be inserted under the skin of the patient's chest.

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Who received India’s first Nobel Prize for physics?

Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman was an Indian physicist known for his work in the field of light scattering. CV Raman was India's first physicist to win a Nobel Physics Prize in 1930 “for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him".

Nobel Prize-winning Sir CV. Raman is known for his pioneering work in Physics. India celebrates National Science Day on February 28 each year to mark the discovery of the Raman Effect on the day in 1928.

Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, also known as C.V. Raman, was a pioneering physicist. Born on November 7, 1888, he was a precocious child, who excelled in Physics during his student days at Presidency College, and later, at the University of Madras. He is best known for his discovery of the Raman Effect, which is a phenomenon of scattering of light that occurs when light passes through a transparent medium. This discovery revolutionised the field of spectroscopy and earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930.

Raman was born in Tiruchirapalli in Tamil Nadu. He showed an early aptitude for mathematics and science. He graduated from Presidency College in Madras with a degree in Physics and went on to work at the Indian Finance Service. However, he soon realised that his true passion was in Physics and left his job to pursue a career in research at the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science. It was here that he was given an opportunity to mentor research scholars from several universities, including the University of Calcutta.

He was appointed as Director (first Indian) of the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, in 1933. In 1947, he was appointed the first National Professor of independent India. He retired from the Indian Institute in 1948. About a year later, he established the Raman Research Institute in Bangalore.

Raman was not only a brilliant scientist, but also a visionary. He believed that science should be accessible to all people, regardless of their background or social status. He was instrumental in the founding of several science institutions. His aim was to encourage the study of science in India.

In addition to the Nobel Prize, Raman received many other honours and awards throughout his career. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in London in 1924 and was conferred the knighthood by the British government in 1929. He also received numerous awards and honours from the Indian government, including the Bharat Ratna in 1954. India celebrates National Science Day on February 28 each year to mark the discovery of the Raman Effect on the day in 1928.

Raman passed away on November 21, 1970, at the age of 82. He is remembered as one of India's greatest scientists and is still widely celebrated as a pioneer in the field of physics. His legacy continues to inspire young scientists and researchers, who continue to build on his work to expand our understanding of the world around us.

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What are the meaning, origin and usage of word ‘Satiate’?

(Pronounced sa tiate)

Meaning: This is a formal word that means to satisfy a need or a desire.

Origin: Both satiate and sad are related to the Latin adjective satis, meaning enough. When we say our desire, thirst, curiosity, etc. has been satiated, we mean it has been fully satisfied or in other words 'have had enough’.

Usage: She finished the meal and sat back with a satiated sigh.

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What are the meaning, origin and usage of word ‘Intricate’?

(pronounced as in truh kuht)

Meaning: The word intricate is used as an adjective to describe the nature of being very complicated or detailed.

Origin:  The word has been around since early 15th Century. It is derived from Latin intricatus meaning entangled past participle of intricare to entangle perplex embarrass."

The usage of the word has been fairly even over the last 200 years or so, with minor ups and downs.

Usage: Human history is intricately woven with our views of the starry skies.

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What are the meaning, origin and usage of word ‘Gravamen’?

Pronounced as: Ggruh-vay-men

 Meaning: A noun, "gravamen" means the significant part of a grievance or complaint.

Origin: The word traces its origin to the Latin word "gravare” meaning “to burden". Its first known use was in 1602. The word is generally used in legal contexts:

Usage: The gravamen of the complaint was that the malpractices by the minister's aides had pushed the kingdom and its residents into a state of deprivation of resources.

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What are the meaning, origin and usage of word ‘Lozenge’?

It is pronounced law-znj.

Meaning: This noun refers to a small, flat sweet that you suck to make a cough or sore throat feel better. It also refers to a figure (such as diamond) with four equal sides and two acute and two obtuse angles.

Origin: This Middle English word is from the Old French losenge, probably derived from the base of Spanish losa, and Portuguese lousa, meaning 'slab’. This, in turn, is from the late Latin word lausiae, meaning ‘stone slabs’.

Usage: She popped an orange-coloured lozenge into her mouth.

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What are the meaning, origin and usage of word ‘Deleterious’?

(Pronounced deh. luh.tech.ree.us)

Meaning: An adjective, "deleterious means harmful or damaging, often in an unexpected way.

Origin: The term originated from the Greek deleterios meaning "noxious or destructive” via Medieval Latin deleterius. It is derived from deleter meaning "destroyer." It began to be used in English in the mid-17th Century.

Usage: Carbon emissions have a deleterious impact on our planet.

 It's important to sleep well as the lack of sleep can have a deleterious effect on the body.

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Why do some artists destroy their own work?

The creative process is one that often requires a great deal of dedication, sacrifice, and hard work. Whether it is the time and effort it takes to perfect a painting or the years spent pouring one's heart and soul into a novel, creating art is a labour of love that can be both exhilarating and exhausting. But what happens when artists and writers reach a point where they no longer want their work to exist? Read on to find out about some renowned artists and literary icons who destroyed their work or tasked someone else to eliminate it for them.

Claude Monet

Oscar Claude Monet or Claude Monet was a French painter and a leading figure in the impressionist art movement. He was renowned for his innovative approach to capturing light colour, and atmosphere in his paintings. The characteristics of the paintings associated with this 19th-Century modern art movement include small, visible brushstrokes that offer the bare impression of form, unblended colour, and an emphasis on the accurate depiction of natural light.

Monet was known for his perfectionism and dedication to his craft. However, there were instances where his pursuit of excellence led him to destroy his paintings. One such incident occurred in 1908, just before a planned exhibition in Paris, where Monet destroyed at least 15 large paintings of his water garden series. He felt that the works were not up to his standards and took a knife and paintbrush to them.

This was not the only time Monet destroyed his paintings. As he approached the end of his life, he took the help of his stepdaughter to dispose of up to 60 canvases that he did not want to represent his legacy. Additionally, after undergoing cataract surgery, Monet disposed of or reworked many of the paintings he created during his vision loss. His friend and former French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau told a journalist in 1927. "Monet would attack his canvases when he was angry. And his anger was born of a dissatisfaction with his work Monet destroyed canvases in his quest for perfection."

Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon, a towering figure in 20th-Century art, fearlessly challenged conventions and pushed the boundaries of acceptability with his influential works. His art often delved into religious imagery and confronted viewers with unsettling and thought-provoking compositions. In 1944, Bacon decided to destroy numerous early works, as he believed they failed to convey his worldview. This marked the beginning of a recurring theme of destruction in Bacon's artistic journey.

It is noteworthy that as Bacon matured, he did express some remorse for the loss of certain works that he later recognised held merit. When Bacon passed away in 1992, his studio revealed a trove of over 100 ruined works of art, serving as a testament to his unyielding pursuit of artistic excellence.

Franz Kafka

Franz Kafka, the renowned German-speaking Bohemian writer, who called Prague his home, is celebrated for his influential novella Metamorphosis. Despite his immense literary contributions, Kafka lived a life plagued by the burden of self-doubt, never quite convinced of his worth as an author. He even went so far as to burn a significant portion of his writing.

While Kafka's shorter works received modest critical acclaim during his lifetime, he remained largely unrecognised as a literary figure of any merit. As his health began to fail, he entrusted his good friend and literary executor, Max Brod, with the task of destroying any unfinished manuscripts upon his death, unread.

Following the author’s demise from tuberculosis at the age of 40 in 1924l, his loyal friend Max Brod faced a difficult decision. Despite Kafka's explicit instructions to destroy his manuscripts, Brod defied the author's wishes and went on to share Kafka's work with the world. He was responsible for publishing some of the author’s most influential works, including The Trial (1925). The Castle (1926), and Amerika (1927).

In 1939, Brod fled from the grip of Nazi-controlled Prague and sought refuge in Israel. There, he made a pivotal decision to entrust approximately two-thirds of Kafka's invaluable papers to the renowned Bodleian Library in Oxford. The remaining collection found its way into the hands of Brod's secretary, Esther Hoffe, who subsequently passed it down to her daughters.

However, the journey of Kafka's papers did not end there. The National Library of Israel emerged as a passionate contender, vying for ownership of Kafka's literary works for the nation. Finally, in 2015, a Tel Aviv court ruled in favour of the National Library of Israel, granting them the rights to the remaining papers-a boon for scholars devoted to studying Kafka's literary genius.

Emily Dickinson

Emily Dickinson, an extraordinary and original American poet, stands among the greatest literary figures of all time. Much like renowned English novelist Charlotte Bronte and poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning, she deftly crafted a fresh and distinct persona through her first-person narratives. In Dickinson's poetry, just as in the works of Bronte and Browning, the speakers keenly observe the limitations of their societies while envisioning both real and imagined means of escape. mere 10 of

During her lifetime, a mere 10 of Dickinson's poems found their way into newspapers, all published anonymously and likely without her knowledge. Although she was very private person, the poet freely shared her poems with close friends and family.

Following Dickinson's passing in 1886, her younger sister Lavinia discovered a remarkable treasure trove in her bedroom-a collection of hand-sewn books containing nearly 1,800 poems. Interestingly, the poet had expressed a desire for all her manuscripts to be destroyed after her death. From her poem Publication is the Auction, one can infer her deep aversion to the idea of seeking publicity, fame, or any form of attention for her work. Fortunately, Dickinson's family intervened, recognising the immense value of her poetic legacy, and compiled her poems into books, ensuring that her profound words would reach the world.

James Joyce

James Joyce, the brilliant Irish poet, novelist, and literary critic, is known for his daring experimentation with language and unique writing style. Despite his undeniable talent, the sting of rejection from publishers was a bitter pill to swallow. Having been turned down by over 20 publishers, the disheartened author deemed his autobiographical novel, Stephen Hero, as utterly worthless and decided to toss it into the fire.

However fate intervened in the form of Joyce's wife, Nora, and his devoted sister, who risked their limbs to save what they could from the flames. They emerged with several unburnt fragments, which would go on to form the backbone of Joyce's next novel, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. This masterpiece remains a timeless bildungsromans or coming-of-age story and is considered to be one of the most significant texts in the history of literature.

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What are the the effective ways to make holidays creative?

It is vacation time and this is when every kid indulges themselves to the hilt. Time is at your disposal and there is not a worry in the world about assignments or tuition classes. Be it reading or sleeping in, there are several ways for you to enjoy the holidays. How about making your free time a little more productive? We have put together a set of creative ways to spend your time indoors.

Write a short story

This holiday season, why not try writing a story? Choose the short story format so that you can finish it within the holidays. The first thing you need to do is to identify an idea. It can be inspired by real-life incidents or can be purely fictional. Think about the multiple endings an incident can have. Add in drama and conflict. Bring in the characters, build them up. and identify their conflicts and goals. Try to bring challenges and figure out your story's message. Once you make a note of the ideas, you can start writing the story. If you. have a writer's block and cannot get ahead and want inspiration, try reading the beginnings of a few famous books. You can start writing from anywhere. Just start writing and everything will follow.

Prepare a scrapbook on any issue that's close to your heart

A scrapbook project is a very creative activity you can indulge in during your vacation. Think about a theme or story or some issue that is close to you and start a visual narrative around it. This is your scrapbook album. You might need a few supplies for this such as scrapbooks or pattern papers, tapes, pens, highlighters, and embellishments. With a beautiful scrapbook, you would have preserved a memory in time!

Make holiday cards

Are you missing your friends? Christmas and New Year aren't the only occasions to make holiday cards. You can make these cards for any occasion. Get a cardstock paper and then fix the size of your card. Decide on the theme of the holiday card. Write out the greeting message and then embellish it with foil, sequins, beads, stones, pattern papers, ribbons and so on.

Find out more about your family history

How about learning more about your roots? This vacation, try to know more about yourself and prepare a book with pictures. You can even learn more about the flora or fauna in your neighbourhood. This helps you record people, places and events and can offer in a nutshell every information you need to know. You can try making a family tree even. A family tree is a representation of family relationships in a tree structure. This can help you know more about your genealogy, and even help build connections with long-lost family members.

Write and illustrate a comic book

You must be familiar with superheroes and comic books. How about creating your own superheroes with superpowers? This vacation, unleash your imagination and create a superhero with the superpower you wish you had. Create a supervillain and illustrate a comic book. The characters can be drawn from real life or can be fictitious. Maybe you will end up creating a superhero kid with multiple superpowers who wants to change the world.

Get creative with whatever is available at home

You don't need high-end craft paraphernalia for creativity. Look around. See that old terracotta plant pot idling away. Why don't you add some colours to it and paint it? Embellish it with beads, sequins, and add colour and you get a pretty pot. Now go ahead and plant a sapling in it and keep it on your window sill. You have just made a corner of your home more interesting and creative. Any and every scrap or rag can become a craft piece if you know how to turn it around and use it as an embellishment or as a product for your craft work. Use the old jewellery, party streamers, ribbons, or buttons and stick them onto old pots or onto your journal and make them more interesting. One of the quickest things you can do is make a bookmark. Why not start with that?

Create a puppet show

The time has come to dig out your old socks. Now go ahead and create your own funny puppet characters. Have any demands that need to be met by your friends or parents? Use the puppet to talk to them. It will be a fun way to get your message across and you can always blame it on the puppet if they disagree with your idea or request. You can also create a range of stories with the puppets and this will keep you engaged for hours.

Create your own puzzles and games

We all enjoy playing games and puzzles. But we play according to the rules of the game. Ever wondered about tweaking the rules or the game itself? if this thought occurred to you, then it is time to create your own puzzle or games. Take an old cardboard box, and create your own fun marble puzzle. Or you can even make a kite using the newspapers. If you like doing jigsaw puzzles, then why not create one by yourself? Choose a photo you like, that of a monument or a animal and take a print out. Now create a personalised photo jigsaw puzzle. You can choose the pictures based on the difficulty level you want. Then try putting the photo puzzle together.

Learn a new skill

Why not use your time to learn a new skill? You can learn a creative art form such as dance or playing an instrument, a craft such as paper quilling, decoupage or origami or even a new language Surprise your friends by greeting them in a different language when you see them next in school after the holidays.

Hang a bird feeder

The summers are indeed a time when most water bodies get dried up. So it will be a great help for the birds if you leave a bowl of water outside and set up a bird feeder. It can be near your window sill and should have some shade. The bird feeder should be perched well above the ground so that birds can come and feed from it without worrying about animals such as cats or dogs. Wait for some days and you will be able to see different types of birds coming and feeding from them.

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