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What is the story of Pandora’s box? What is the most important message of Pandora’s box?

Is curiosity a blessing or a curse? The paradoxical nature of this trait is personified in Greek mythology by the tale of Pandora, the woman whose blazing curiosity set a chain of Earth-shattering events.

The birth of Pandora

Pandora was breathed to life by the God of fire. Hephestus, who called for gifts from his divine companions to make his creation extraordinary.

The pantheon of Gods blessed her with her name, a capacity for deep emotion, and creativity. Finally, when Zeus’s turn came, he blessed the mortal with not one but two gifts.

First was the trait of curiosity and the second was a heavy sealed box which came with a warning that she must never open it under any circumstances. Pandora’s life on Earth brimmed with excitement, but her thirst for knowledge often made her wonder about the contents of the sealed box. Her wandering mind was often plagued by the question: What treasure was so great that it could never be seen by mortals? And why was it in her care?

Mystery of the box

The mystery of the box was madding to the point that she was convinced that she heard the contents rattling around inside, trying to get free.

One day she could bear it no longer. As she opened the lid, monstrous screeching creatures were let loose. Turns out Zeus had used the box as a vessel to imprison every calamity and evil being that was ever created.

Crippling anxiety took hold of her as she helplessly tried to direct these creatures back into the box. All seemed lost until a warm beam of light arose from the vessel and a tiny butterfly fluttered away easing Pandora’s mind. This beautiful creature was hope. Ever since then humans have been able to hold on to hope in order to thrive in the darkest hours and to endure and overcome the hardships in life.

In modern times…

The term Pandora’s box refers to the extreme consequences of tampering with the unknown.

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What has caused the decline in grey whale numbers?

Often, conservation stories underline the importance of the role of all creatures-big and small-for balance in ecosystem. For instance, krill crustaceans barely two inches long are a huge link in the global food chain. If such a small organism can have a telling impact on the food chain, one can only imagine the kind of effect larger animals have in an ecosystem. So, when the population of a large animal plunges, it is always a cause for concern.

Grey whales are among the largest animals on Earth- nearly 50 feet long and weighing over 40 tonnes. These giants are known for their long annual migration of more than 15,000 km “between feeding grounds in the Arctic and breeding grounds in Baja Mexico” Recent research has revealed that the number of these fascinating creatures is witnessing a worrying slump- by nearly 40% in just six years. From 27,000 whales in 2016, the number stands at a concerning 16,650 today. Several factors are attributed to this decrease. One of them is the increase in strandings in 2019, when about 600 of these creatures washed up dead along the west coast of North America Though boat collisions and killer whale attacks caused a few of these deaths most of the dead whales were malnourished which takes us to n crucial of interconnectedness in an ecosystem. It is believed that the malnourishment could be the result of “the whales’ food sources of tiny crustaceans and other invertebrates they prey on in the Arctic shifting due to environmental changes. Further, the overall population among West Coast grey whales “coincides with diminished reproduction” While there were 383 baby whales during the calf production season last year, there have been a mere 217 newborns this year – “the lowest number since such counts began in 1994”

Grey whales were close to extinction several decades ago due to commercial whaling before their population improved due to timely conservation efforts. Even then, the 80s and 90s saw a plunge of about 40%, and eventually they rebounded. It is important for this whale population to recover too because they keep the population of certain other creatures in the food chain in check. Even in death-as carcasses- these large marine mammals help feed several other organisms.

Often, grey whales are washed up dead along the U.S. west coasts. Though boat collisions and killer whale attacks cause some deaths, researchers say malnourishment is a major reason. With tiny crustaceans and other invertebrates shifting due to environmental changes, the grey whales are left without food.

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What is Protogalaxy?

A protogalaxy is in simpler words a primeval galaxy. It refers to a galaxy that is undergoing the first generation of star formation. It is also defined as a cloud of gas that is forming into a galaxy. This particular celestial mass would just comprise hydrogen gas trapped in some dark matter prior to the initial stages of star formation. The stars are formed from the smaller clumps of gas in the protogalaxy.

Types of Galaxies

There are two types of galaxies viz. elliptical galaxies and spiral galaxies. The majority of the galaxies that you come across are elliptical galaxies and they are called so because they have an even, ellipsoidal shape. They also are comprised with a greater population of older stars when compared to spiral galaxies.

A spiral galaxy normally has a rotating disc replete with spiral ‘arms. The stellar orbits are circular in shape and they have a flattened disk system. Most spiral galaxies also contain in their centre a mini-elliptical galaxy. Our galaxy, the Milky Way, is a spiral galaxy.

So what determines the shape of a galaxy? The rate of star formation during galactic evolution determines whether it turns out into a spiral or elliptical galaxy. If the star formation is at a slower pace, then it turns into a spiral galaxy.

Milky Way

About 12.5 billion years ago, the Milky Way started to form. Several huge clusters of stars and clumps of gas fused together to form a protogalaxy. This was the building basis of our home!

It then collided with many galaxies, and after a lot of mergers, it acquired its present form.

Recently, scientists discovered a population of millions of stars at the center of our galaxy. Those were the remains of the ancient protogalaxy! These oldest stars that were found in the core area of our galaxy were analysed and the scientists found out that they were part of a protogalaxy.

The diameter of which extended to 18 thousand light-years, and with a mass that was 50-200 million times that of the Sun!

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What is Ebola?

In September 2022, Uganda announced its first Ebola fatality since 2019 in an outbreak in the central district of Mubende. But what is Ebola, what causes it, and what are its symptoms? Come, let’s find out….

Ebola is a rare, deadly viral haemorrhagic fever. It was first discovered in the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire) in 1976. DR Congo has experienced 14 Ebola outbreaks since then. There are different strains of the virus that are known to affect people. They include Zaire, Sudan, Bundibugyo, Reston and Tai Forest. Death rate among the Ebola-infected people is high ranging up to 90 % in some outbreaks, according to the World Health Organisation.

Spreads from fruit bats?

A species of fruit bat is said to be the most likely source of the disease. People get exposed to the virus if they touch the skin or body fluids of infected bats It’s interesting to note that the infected bats themselves do not fall ill. But how does the virus spread among humans? It is through contact with the blood, body fluids, or secretions of an infected person or one who has just died from the disease. It is said that outbreaks are difficult to contain as people who are infected do not become contagious until symptoms manifest. High contagiousness occurs soon after their deaths, say, during funeral services.

Symptoms of Ebola

The Ebola virus has an incubation period of 2-21 days. High fever, fatigue, severe muscle and joint pain, headache, and sore throat are initial symptoms. As the disease progresses, the virus damages the immune system as well as the organs. Hence, the initial symptoms are often followed by vomiting, diarrhoea, skin eruption, kidney and liver failure, and sometimes internal and external bleeding.

Treatment

Ebola can be diagnosed through tests of blood and tissues. If infection is confirmed in an individual, they should be immediately isolated to prevent the spread of the disease. Currently, there is no cure for Ebola. Two drugs, Inmazeb and Ebanga, have been approved for treating Ebola. Besides, fluids and electrolytes are administered either orally or intravenously, and medications are given to control fever, vomiting, diarrhoea, and other symptoms. Blood transfusions from survivors are done to improve survival. At present, there is the Ervebo vaccine, which is found to be highly effective against the Zaire strain. This is the first Ebola jab approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in December 2019.

QUICK FACTS

* Ebola gets its name from the Ebola River, which is near one of the villages in the DR Congo where the disease first surfaced.

*The worst Ebola epidemic in West Africa between 2013 and 2016 killed more than 11,300 people.

*The DR Congo has had more than a dozen epidemics, the deadliest killing 2,280 people in 2020.

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What is click chemistry?

The recent Nobel Chemistry Prize turned the spotlight on click chemistry that allows molecular building blocks to snap together quickly and efficiently.

Early in October, the Nobel Chemistry Prize was awarded to a trio of scientists-Carolyn R. Bertozzi, Morten Meldal, and K. Barry Sharpless-“for the development of click chemistry and bioorthogonal chemistry”. While Sharpless and Meldal laid the foundation for a functional form of chemistry, Bertozzi took it to a new dimension by utilising it in living organisms.

Sharpless, who was awarded his second Nobel Prize in Chemistry, set the ball rolling around the year 2000 when he coined the concept of click chemistry. A simple and reliable form of chemistry, the reactions in click chemistry occur quickly and unwanted byproducts are avoided. Just like how children build with their blocks, click chemistry allows molecular building blocks to snap together quickly and efficiently.

Soon afterwards, Sharpless and Meldal independently arrived at a specific chemical reaction that uses copper ions as a catalyst. Now in widespread use, this reaction is seen as the crown jewel of click chemistry.

Many advantages

While the use of copper has many advantages, including that the reactions could be done at room temperature and could involve water, they can be toxic for the cells of living organisms.

Bertozzi took click chemistry to a new level by working on the foundations built by Sharpless and Meldal.

What Bertozzi did was to develop click reactions that work inside living organisms without disrupting the normal chemistry of the cell. She called this bioorthogonal chemistry- orthogonal meaning intersecting at right angles. While in click chemistry, the molecules clicked together in a straight flat line as in a seat belt, Bertozzi discovered more stable reactions by forcing the molecules at an angle.

Endless possibilities

Even though this is a very young field relatively, the Nobel Chemistry Prize was awarded to these scientists as this field has taken chemistry into an era of functionalism. While we are still scratching the surface, click chemistry and bioorthogonal chemistry are expected to bring great benefit to humanity. Click chemistry is already in use to create polymers that protect against heat and in varieties of glue in nano-chemistry. Other use cases include developing new targeted medicines. There is hope to create a targeted way to diagnose and treat cancer, including making chemotherapy have fewer severe side effects. The possibilities are literally endless at the moment.

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What is Cryptocurrency and how does it work?

You might have heard about cryptocurrency? But do you know what it is, how it works or how it is mined? Read on to find out…

You are all familiar with currency in the form of notes and coins that are physical, meaning you can touch and feel them. There is, however, a kind of currency that you cannot see, touch or feel. It is called cryptocurrency.

What is Cryptocurrency?

A cryptocurrency is a type of digital money, the electronic form of real-world money. It has no form and exists only in the digital world. Digital payments like Google Pay, Internet banking, debit cards, etc. are necessarily linked to a bank account. In the case of cryptocurrencies, you do not need a bank- account. Digital currency allows people to send and receive payments anywhere directly to one another using an online system, without needing a bank or any centralised authority.

As a result, some countries don’t allow cryptocurrency payments, while others ban cryptocurrency exchanges or control those who provide this service.

Types of cryptocurrencies

Just like the world has many different currencies such as the Euro, the US dollar and the Japanese yen there are different types of cryptocurrencies.

The most well-known cryptocurrency is Bitcoin, which has been around since 2009 and is the world’s largest cryptocurrency. It is followed by Ethereum, Ripple, Bitcoin Cash, Cardano and Litecoin.

Who invented Bitcoin?

Bitcoin is considered the world’s first cryptocurrency. However, there is a lot of mystery surrounding its origin.

In October 2008, a person or a group of persons using the name ‘Satoshi Nakamoto’ released a paper describing a new form of electronic cash called bitcoin, The paper was released through a mailing list using cryptography, which is a method of checking and securing data using extremely difficult mathematical codes.

The identity of Satoshi Nakamoto remains a mystery. It is unknown whether it is one person or a group of people. It is popularly believed that the name is an acronym for some of the leading technology companies: Samsung, Toshiba, Nakamichi and Motorola (Sa-Toshi-Naka-Moto).

Blockchains

When a person transfers cryptocurrency funds, this transaction is recorded in a public ledger, called the blockchain.

A blockchain is a record of all transactions carried out by cryptocurrency holders. This blockchain technology joins groups of transactions (blocks) together over time (in a chain). Each time a transaction is made, it forms part of a new block that is added to the chain. So, the blockchain provides a record of every transaction. The blockchain system is very difficult to hack.

How does a cryptocurrency work?

The cryptocurrency payments system exists only as digital entries in an online database, which describes each specific transaction. A cryptocurrency wallet is needed to store cryptocurrencies. These wallets can be software that is a cloud-based service or is stored on a computer or mobile device. It is through these wallets that a person can store encryption keys that confirm his or her identity and link to his/her cryptocurrency. This is the only tangible proof of ownership of cryptocurrency.

Cryptocurrency users can buy cryptocurrencies from brokers, then store and spend them using cryptographic wallets.

Cryptocurrency mining

The units of cryptocurrency are created through a process called ‘mining’. This involves using computer power to solve complicated mathematical problems that generate coins.

Cryptocurrency mining is very hard, costly and not always rewarding.

Did you know?

  • The first bitcoin transaction was for buying a pizza. A man in Florida, USA. paid 10,000 bitcoins for two pizzas on 22 May 2020, making it the first commercial bitcoin transaction.
  • There are over 9,500 cryptocurrencies in existence as of March, 2022.
  • The total amount of bitcoins available is limited to 21 million. So, at some point, no more bitcoins can be mined.

Picture Credit : Google 

Play of geometry and layers

The intricate mola panels of Panama are created by the indigenous people of Kuna, using the reverse applique technique.

There was a time when the indigenous Kuna people of Panama wore little clothing and covered their bodies instead with elaborate and colourful body art. With the passage of time, when they began wearing clothes, they transferred the workmanship to their textiles, giving rise to the handmade textile art of mola.

Mola panels are made using the reverse applique technique. Layers of different-coloured cotton cloth (up to seven layers) are sewn together. Then each layer is cut out in a pattern, revealing the cloth underneath. The largest pattern is cut out from the topmost layer, with progressively small designs being cut out from the lower layers. The edges of each layer are folded and sewn down with fine, almost invisible stitches. The beauty of the mola lies in the intricacy of the design and the finesse of the sewing.

Molas are characterised by vibrant colours and complex geometric patterns. They are often hailed as ‘living history books’ as the designs reflect the Kuna symbols of nature and their culture. The traditional costume of the Kuna woman includes a blouse adorned with mola panels.

FACT FILE

*Molas are characterised by vibrant colours and complex geometric patterns.

*They are often hailed as ‘living history books’ as the designs reflect the Kuna symbols of nature and their culture.

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What is the record held by the Mariana Trench?

The Mariana Trench is not only the deepest oceanic trench on Earth but also holds the two lowest points on the planet. This crescent- shaped trench is located in the Western Pacific, east of the Mariana Islands near Guam. The region around the trench is known for many unique environments, such as vents bubbling up liquid sulfur and carbon dioxide, active mud volcanoes, and marine life adapted to pressures 1,000 times more than at sea level.

The Challenger Deep, the southern end of the Mariana Trench, is the deepest spot in the ocean. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, in 2010, used sound pulses sent through the ocean and calculated the Challenger Deep to be 10,994 metres deep even though it was considered almost impossible to measure its depth. In 2021, pressure sensors were used to calculate its depth and it was discovered that the deepest spot in Challenger Deep was 10,935 m. The ocean’s second-deepest place is also in the Mariana Trench. The Sirena Deep, which lies 200 kilometres to the east of Challenger Deep, is 10,809 metres deep.

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Which is the deepest lake?

The world’s deepest freshwater lake is Lake Baikal located in Siberia. It holds more than 20 per cent of the unfrozen fresh water on the surface of the Earth and is the oldest freshwater lake in the world – it is estimated that the lake has been here for about 20 million to 25 million years. This magnificent natural water body is known as the ‘Galapagos of Russia.’ Its age and isolation have led to the existence of some of the most unusual and exceptional freshwater fauna of the world, making it a hotspot for evolutionary science.

Baikal is home to a great variety of animal and plant species that cannot be found anywhere else on the planet. Of the rare species here, the Baikal seal (also called the nerpa) is the only species of seal in the world to exist in a freshwater habitat. Since the lake lies hundreds of kilometres inland, it remains a mystery as to how the ancestors of these seals arrived in Lake Baikal. More than 330 rivers and streams enter Lake Baikal- the largest of which include the Selenga, Barguzin, Upper Angara, Chikoy, and Uda. There are a number of industries along the shores of Baikal. Mining (mica and marble), cellulose and paper manufacturing, ship building, fisheries, and timber are some of the prominent ones.

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