Category Civics

What is an FIR ?

If you have followed the news. you must have often read about police making arrests on the basis of an FIR (First Information Report). However, do you know what FIR is?

What is an FIR?

An FIR is a written document prepared by the police in India. Pakistan and Bangladesh. Interestingly, it is not defined in the Indian Penal Code (IPC). Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC), 1973, or in any other law, but is part of police regulations or rules.

An FIR is generally a complaint lodged with the police by the victim or by someone on his or her behalf about an offence. The informant is given a copy of the FIR free of cost.

After an FIR is filed, the police start investigating the case and can arrest the alleged persons as per law. If there is sufficient evidence to support the complaint, then a chargesheet is filed. Or else, a Final Report mentioning that no evidence was found is filed in court.

Filing an FIR

The procedure for filing an FIR is mentioned under Section 154 of the Criminal Procedure Code. 1973. Anyone can file an FIR either orally or in writing to the police.

People can also lodge an FIR online. Following the filing of an FIR, the police are bound to commence investigation into the case.

Here is the process to file an FIR: One has to visit the nearest police station and inform the police of all the details of the offence either verbally or in writing. If it is a verbal statement, the duty officer writes it down and makes an entry in the General Diary or Daily Diary. If it is a written complaint, one must carry two copies – one for the duty officer and the other for one’s personal record.

The police will go through the details after submission of the complaint. Then the information recorded by the police is read over to the complainant.

Then one needs to sign the FIR after verifying that the information recorded by the police is as per the details given.

A free-of-cost copy of the FIR will be given to the complainant with an FIR number, date of FIR and the name of the police station. Both copies of the FIR are stamped bearing a Daily Diary number. It is a proof that the complaint has been received by the police.

These details can be used to access the FIR online for free if the copy is lost.

After an FIR is registered, its contents cannot be changed. However, additional information can be given to the police later on at any point

Zero FIR

The provision of Zero FIR was recommended for the first time in the report of the Justice Verma Committee. It was constituted to make amendments to the Criminal Law in order to speed up trial and enhance punishment for criminals accused of committing sexual assault against women.

The objective of a Zero FIR is to ensure the victim does not have to run to different police stations to get a complaint registered.

A person can even file a Zero FIR which means a police station can receive a complaint regarding an alleged offence that has been committed in the jurisdiction of another police station. The FIR can then be transferred to the concerned police station for further investigation.

If a person is refused by the officer in charge of a police station to register an FIR, he/she can send the complaint to the Superintendent of Police/DCP concerned.

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Which Chief Minister was arrested in India?

The Enforcement Directorate arrested the former Jharkhand Chief Minister Hemant Soren on January 31 in connection with a land scam case. The arrest came as soon as he resigned as the Chief Minister. Following his arrest, which has been challenged in the court of law, tribal bodies announced protests across the State.

Meanwhile, Champai Soren took over as the new Chief Minister. He also underwent a floor test to prove his party’s majority in the House. “At present we have 43 MLAs and four are in hospital. We have the support of 47 MLAs. The Governor is yet to give the time to form the government,” Champai Soren told the media ahead of the trust vote last week. To form the government, the ruling alliance needs only 41 MLAs.

The newly formed government passed the confidence motion in the State Assembly. The Jharkhand Mukti CM Champai Soren (left) with Hemant Soren.

Morcha with 29 seats and its ally Congress with 17 were confident of easily sailing through the trust vote. Hemant Soren was also present in the Assembly to attend the floor test. A special court in Ranchi allowed Soren to participate in the trust-vote.

What is a trust vote?

A trust vote, also known as a confidence motion or vote of confidence, is a parliamentary procedure where members of the Legislative Assembly or Parliament vote to express their confidence or lack of confidence in the government. When a government is formed, it needs to prove that it has the support of the majority of the members of the legislative body. If the government loses a trust vote, it typically means that it no longer enjoys the majority support and is expected to resign, leading to either the formation of a new government or fresh elections.

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What sets the International Criminal Court apart?

After about a year since the International Criminal Court (ICC) launched its investigation against Russia over possible crimes committed in Ukraine by the Russian forces, the court in March issued arrest warrant for Russian President Vladimir Putin for war crimes. Let us know about the ICC

History

The ICC, a permanent judicial body, was established in 1998 by the Rome Statute. Its sittings began on July 1, 2002 after 60 countries had ratified the Rome Statute. A total of 123 countries are States Parties to the Rome Statute of the ICC.

The ICC is based in The Hague, The Netherlands. Its first hearing was held in 2006 against Thomas Lubanga, who was accused of recruiting child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Organisation

Currently, the ICC has 123 member nations. About 42 nations have neither signed the treaty nor joined the organisation, including China, India, Russia, and the U.S.

The court has 18 judges, each from a different member country and elected by the member states. The judges and prosecutors of the ICC are elected to non-renewable nine-year terms. The president and two vice-presidents of the court are elected from among the judges. The current president of ICC is Piotr Hofmanski, a Polish jurist Meanwhile. Karim Khan is the chief prosecutor of the ICC

Powers

The ICC is responsible for investigating, prosecuting, and trying individuals accused of genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. It also imposes prison sentences upon the guilty.

It is only competent to hear a case if the country where the offence was committed is a party to the Rome Statute or the perpetrators country of origin is a party to the Rome Statute.

The ICC can exercise its jurisdiction only if the national court is unable or unwilling to do so. It only has jurisdiction over offences committed after the Statute’s entry into force on July 1, 2002

However, the ICC does not have powers to arrest suspects. With Putin’s case, the ICC has for the first time, issued an arrest warrant against one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council

What is ICI?

Unlike the International Court of Justice (ICI), which hears disputes between nations, the ICC handles prosecutions of individuals.

The ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. It has no jurisdiction to try individuals who are accused of war crimes or crimes against humanity. As it is not a criminal court, it does not have a prosecutor able to initiate proceedings.

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What is Aadhaar Mitra?

The Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI), which is responsible for issuing the Aadhaar card to residents of the country, recently launched a new AI/ML-based chatbot called Aadhaar Mitra. What’s the chatbot for and how can we access it? Come, let’s find out

Aadhaar is a unique identification system that assigns a 12-digit number to residents of the country after due verification. The system is used to authenticate identity and provide access to government services such as PDS, LPG, etc., subsidies, and benefits. Though Aadhaar was introduced way back in 2010, many still struggle to enrol in the system or update their information. This is where Aadhaar Mitra comes in.

Where can you find it?

Aadhaar Mitra is a chatbot that uses machine learning and artificial intelligence technology to provide personalised assistance to users. The chatbot is designed to be user-friendly.

The Aadhaar Mitra feature is available on the home page of the UIDAI’s website. Once you click on the flickering blue “Aadhaar Mitra” icon at the bottom right comer, it will ask you to “Get started”. Then, enter your query related to the Aadhaar system in the text field and click on the ‘Send’ button and the chatbot will throw up the required answer.

Available at all times

Aadhaar Mitra can provide a wide range of answers on Aadhaar related topics. The chatbot makes the process of checking your Aadhaar enrolment/update status easier. You can get information about a nearby Aadhaar enrolment centre by entering the pin code of your location.

The chatbot helps track Aadhaar PVC card (latest version of the card which is made of polyvinyl chloride in the size of a debit card) status and even tells users what should be done when an Aadhaar card is lost. It also tells you how to download an e-aadhaar from the UIDAI website through a video.

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The magical voter’s ink

The indelible ink is used to mark a voter’s finger during elections to avoid fraud, multiple voting, and malpractices

During the elections, you must have seen your parents coming out of polling stations with violet-coloured ink on one of their fingers. This ink is called the voters ink or indelible ink.

History

The indelible ink was first developed by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in 1952. In 1962, the Election Commission and the National Research Development Corporation signed an agreement with Mysore Paints and Varnish Ltd. (MPVL), established by the Mysuru maharaja Nalwadi Krishnaraja Wadiyar IV in 1937, to manufacture and supply the ink.

Since then, the MPVL (an undertaking of the Karnataka government) has remained the sole authorised supplier of indelible ink, having an exclusive licence granted by the National Research Development Corporation (NRDC) since 1962.

Usage

For over six decades, the MPVL has been supplying indelible ink for civic body, Assembly and Parliamentary elections.

Besides, this ink is supplied to more than 25 countries, including Canada, Ghana, Nigeria, Mongolia, Malaysia, Nepal, South Africa, and the Maldives.

While in India the indelible ink is applied on the left-hand index finger of the voter in a 25 polling booth, the voters in Cambodia and the Maldives need to dip their finger into the ink. In Burkina Faso, the ink is applied with a brush, and nozzles are used in Turkey.

Mysterious ink

The indelible ink contains silver nitrate that gets absorbed into the nail and skin, making it last for several days. It remains bright for about 10 days before beginning to fade away. It cannot be wiped off by any chemical, detergent, or oil. It gets removed over time as fresh skin cells replace the dead ones.

Though the concentration of silver nitrate ranges from 7% to 25% the exact composition remains unknown as it is manufactured in secrecy.

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Who are Agniveers?

Agniveers are recruits for the armed forces under the short-term induction programme. Read on to find out more about them.

Prime Minister Narendra Modi recently interacted with Agniveers through a video conference. But do you know who Agniveers are and why they are recruited? Come, let’s find out.

Agniveers and Agnipath

“Agniveer” is a new military rank. Agniveers are recruits for the armed forces under the short-term induction programme called the Agnipath scheme. The scheme was unveiled by the Government on June 14, 2022, to recruit Indian youths for the three services – the Indian Army, Navy, or Air Force.

Under the scheme, those in the age group 17-and-a-half years to 21 years are recruited below the rank of commissioned officers for a period of four years with a provision to retain 25% of them for 15 more years. However, the upper age limit was extended to 23 years as a one-time measure for 2022-23. The scheme was earlier called “Tour of Duty”.

Purpose of the scheme

The main purpose of the Agnipath scheme is to strengthen the country’s security forces, with a youthful, high-tech, and combat-ready military. Those recruited under the scheme are provided training and a pay package, and on completion of the term, will be given a one-time retirement package called ‘Seva Nidhi, which will be exempted from income tax. However, the scheme does not include a pension or other benefits.

How do they train?

The training period, which lasts 31 weeks, is divided into two phases. The first 10 weeks are devoted to basic military training and the next 21 weeks to advanced military training. The training will focus on physical fitness, firing and handling various weapons, information technology, and the English language. Nearly 60 lakh applications were received of which 40,000 were selected. The target for this financial year is to recruit 46,000 candidates.

PM’s address to Agniveers

Prime Minister Narendra Modi recently interacted with the first batch of Agniveers through video conferencing. He asserted that Agnipath was a transformative policy and a game changer in strengthening the armed forces and making them future-ready.

Hailing the potential of Agniveers, he said the experience they would acquire through this opportunity, would be a source of pride for life. He said the scheme would further empower women.

The introduction of the short-term military employment scheme has faced criticism from some sections for lack of consultation and public debate.

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What important events happened in 2022 in India?

In India, the major headlines of the year included Assembly elections in some States, the election of Droupadi Murmu as President, the commissioning of INS Vikrant, the hijab row and a bunch of significant Supreme Court verdicts.

1. The Amar Jawan Jyoti shifted, Rajpath renamed

 The Amar Jawan Jyoti, which had been burning for 50 years at India Gate, was merged with the eternal flame at the National War Memorial on January 21, 2022, as part of the ongoing Central Vista Redevelopment Project in New Delhi. Amar Jawan Jyoti was a tribute to the soldiers who sacrificed their lives during the 1971 India-Pakistan war.

On September 8, 2022, Rajpath was renamed ‘Kartavya Path’ and inaugurated with the unveiling of Subhash Chandra Bose’s statue. The 3-km-long ceremonial road, where the annual Republic Day celebrations take place, runs from the Raisina Hill complex to India Gate.

2. Karnataka hijab row

In February 2022, the Karnataka government banned the wearing of hijab in educational institutions. It was challenged in the High Court by some Muslim girls. On March 15, the High Court upheld the ban, stating the hijab was not an essential religious practice protected under Article 25 of the Constitution (deals with practice and propagation of religion). In October, the Supreme Court delivered a split verdict. One judge affirmed that the state government was authorised to enforce uniform in schools, while the other said the hijab was a matter of personal choice that could not be stifled by the State.

3. Assembly polls

Assembly elections were held in Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Goa, Manipur, and Punjab between February and March 2022. The BJP returned to power in UP, Uttarakhand, Goa, and Manipur. The AAP registered a decisive win in Punjab. After a string of electoral defeats, the Congress won in Himachal Pradesh, edging out the ruling BJP. The BJP returned to power in Gujarat for the seventh time with a historic mandate in December 2022. The new entrant AAP won five seats, making a mark in Gujarat. Meanwhile, on December 7, the AAP wrested control of the Municipal Corporation of Delhi from the BJP, after 15 years.

4. Agnipath Scheme

The Agnipath Scheme was unveiled by the government on June 14, 2022, for recruiting Indian youth, in the 17-and-a-half to 21 year age group, below the rank of commissioned officers for the armed forces. As per the scheme, all recruits will be hired for a four-year period and will be called Agniveers. They will be provided training, a pay package, and, on completion of the term, a one-time retirement package. However, this scheme did not include a pension or other benefits. The main purpose of the scheme is to strengthen the country’s security forces, with a youthful, high-tech, and combat-ready military.

5. New President & New CJI

The BJP-led NDA candidate Droupadi Murmu was sworn in as the 15th President of the country on July 25, 2022. Murmu is the first President hailing from a tribal community and also the youngest to occupy the post. Former West Bengal Governor Jagdeep Dhankhar was sworn in as Vice-President on August 11.

On November 9, 2022, D. Y. Chandrachud took oath as the 50th Chief Justice of India. He succeeded U. U. Lalit who served for just 74 days! Justice Chandrachud, who has been part of benches that have delivered landmark verdicts, will serve as the Chief Justice until November 10, 2024.

6. INS Vikrant commissioned

Prime Minister Narendra Modi commissioned India’s first indigenous aircraft carrier INS Vikrant, in Kochi on September 2. 2022. Constructed by the Cochin Shipyard Limited, the 262-m-long and 62-m-wide aircraft carrier can accommodate 30 aircraft on board. It cost 20,000 crore and took over a decade to complete. The Navy has a large operational fleet, including frigates, guided missile destroyers, conventional submarines, and a nuclear attack submarine. INS Vikrant, launched in August 2013, was commissioned in 2022 after extensive trials, marking a defining moment in the history of the Indian Navy. It also stands testimony to India’s quest to be self-reliant in defence equipment.

7. Bharat Jodo Yatra

Congress leader Rahul Gandhi commenced his 3570-km-long ‘Bharat Jodo Yatra’ (Uniting India Rally) from Kanyakumari on September 7, 2022. Ahead of its launch, he paid homage at his father Rajiv Gandhi’s memorial in Tamil Nadu. The Yatra, a mass outreach programme, has covered several States including TN, Kerala, Karnataka, AP, Telangana, Maharashtra, MP and Rajasthan. The 150-day yatra, according to the party, was started by Rahul Gandhi to unite the country against the alleged “divisive politics of the BJP-led government at New Delhi, to provide an alternative to the politics of fear, bigotry and prejudice.” and to safeguard the Constitution. It will culminate in Srinagar on January 30, 2023.

8. G20 presidency

India formally assumed the G20 presidency on December 1, 2022. A forum of the world’s major developed and developing economies, the G20 regularly meets to coordinate global policy on economic growth, international trade, climate, and other issues. Together, the countries account for over 80% of the global GDP, 75% of international trade and two-thirds of the world population. India was handed over the presidency of the influential bloc by Indonesia in November. As India began its G-20 presidency, PM Narendra Modi said the country would work to further promote oneness, inspired by the theme of “One Earth, One Family, One Future”.

9. Ongoing pandemic

2022 saw the continued impact of COVID-19. The economy and people’s lives limped back to normality. The bulk of the adult population was fully vaccinated as of December 2022. Restrictions were lifted, and schools, offices and international borders were reopened. However, towards year-end, COVID alert was back, following the China surge. The government made it mandatory for passengers arriving from China and a few other countries to have negative RT-PCR reports. COVID-19 guidelines were tightened. States assessed preparedness for possible rise in cases. Bharat Biotech’s iNCOVACC, the world’s first intranasal COVID-19 vaccine, received approval from the drug regulator in November.

10.  Border confrontation

India-China relations have continued to deteriorate. Rival troops have been clashing along the Line of Actual Control, the disputed border. With no clear-cut demarcation on the ground position, confrontations continue. When China was found to be expanding civilian settlements close to the LAC, the Indian Army identified villages in border areas for boosting infrastructure. Despite military-level talks, tensions prevail. On December 9, 2022, Chinese troops carried out an incursion near the strategically-significant Tawang in Arunachal, attempting to change the status quo. In the ensuing clash, soldiers on both sides sustained “minor injuries.” Following this, China conducted war games near the LAC.

11. India set to become third-largest economy?

India became the fifth-largest economy in September 2022, beating the UK. It could surpass Germany and Japan to become the third-largest economy by 2029, according to the IMF. The top two economies will continue to be the US and China. According to the IMF World Economic Outlook, many developed countries were hit hard by inflation triggered by the pandemic, the Russia-Ukraine war and the energy crisis. It attributed India’s progress to its economic expansion at a good pace and the rupee’s depreciation against the dollar was lower than other major currencies. Besides, it said India’s Forex reserves are at over $561 billion.

12. The Shiv Sena crisis

2022 saw Shiv Sena chief Uddhav Thackeray stepping down as Maharashtra CM on June 29, following a rebellion within the party. The crisis began when cabinet minister Eknath Shinde along with 40 MLAS demanded that Shiv Sena quit the ruling Maha Vikas Aghadi (Shiv Sena-NCP-INC) alliance and join hands with BJP. Governor Bhagat Singh Koshyari asked Thackeray to prove his government’s majority which led to Thackeray, left with only 16 MLAS, resigning. The Sena rebels joined hands with BJP to form government. A day after Thackeray’s resignation, BJP declared Shinde to be CM and BJP leader Devendra Fadnavis to be Deputy CM.

13. SC’s significant rulings

The apex court made key rulings upholding the rights of women in 2022.

Dowry: On January 11, the SC said the word “dowry” ought to include any “material” demand made by in-laws on a woman.

Child’s surname: On July 28, the SC ruled that a mother, being the only natural guardian of the child after the death of the biological father, has the right to decide the surname of the child.

Abortion & marital rape: On September 29, the SC ruled that under the provisions of India’s Medical Termination of Pregnancies Act, 1971, all women, whether married or not, are entitled to safe and legal abortion, up to 24 weeks gestation. While passing the judgment, the SC said marital rape is also rape

14. PFI banned

The Central Government on September 28, 2022, banned the Popular Front of India, an Islamist outfit, for five years for its alleged links with terror groups such as the SIMI, JMB and the ISIS. The ban came amid a crackdown on PFI whose offices in several states were raided by authorities, and many of its leaders were arrested. It was alleged that the outfit motivated Muslim youths to join terrorist groups. According to the government, it banned the PFI and its associates for allegedly undertaking “unlawful activities”. The PFI denied the allegations. Meanwhile, agencies were suspecting PFI’s role in the Coimbatore and Mangalore blasts.

15. 75 years of independence

India marked its 75th anniversary of Independence in 2022, an important milestone in its journey since gaining freedom from British rule in August 1947, through an initiative called “Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav. Pan-India events are being organised as part of this Government’s initiative to pay tribute to our freedom fighters, highlight the country’s rich culture, and celebrate its achievements in varied fields in the last 75 years. On August 15, 2022, PM Modi unfurled the national flag at the Red Fort, followed by an address to the country when he pledged to transform India into a developed nation in the next 25 years.

16. Morbi bridge tragedy

At least 135 people, including 55 children, were killed when the Morbi bridge collapsed due to overcrowding on October 30, 2022. The over 130-year-old suspension bridge over the Machchu river in Gujarat’s Morbi district, had been reopened to the public just days earlier after repairs by Oreva Group, the firm contracted to maintain the bridge. Questions were raised as to why a company known for making wall clocks was allowed to maintain a bridge, why the tender for the repair work of a public bridge was not floated, and whether the bridge’s safety was tested before its reopening. Nine persons were arrested.

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What is the status of new parliament in India?

The new Parliament building inaugurated in New Delhi recently is high on symbolism and reflects the aspirations of "new India"

If you have been following the news, you must be aware of the recent inauguration of the new Parliament building in New Delhi. Now let's look at some fascinating features of the new structure.

Prime Minister Narendra Modi dedicated the new Parliament building in New Delhi to the citizens on May 28, 2023. After installing the historic "Sengol" (a sceptre signifying the transfer of power from the British in 1947) in the Lok Sabha chamber, he delivered a speech in which the PM said the new Parliament reflected the aspirations and resolve of the "new India" to work towards achieving greater heights and that it would be a testament to the dawn of Aatmanirbhar Bharat (self-reliant India). He lauded the use of material from different parts of the country in the building to symbolise "Ek Bharat, Shreshtha Bharat".

In the shape of a triangle

The new Parliament building is part of the Central Vista redevelopment project. A beautiful blend of traditional motifs and modern technology, the new building reflects India's diversity in its architecture. Constructed by Tata Projects Ltd, it was completed in about two-and-a-half years at an estimated cost of nearly Rs 1,200 crore. The triangular-shaped four-storeyed building has a built-up area of 64,500 sq. m. The building has three main gates – Gyan Dwar, Shakti Dwar, and Karma Dwar. It also has a Constitution Hall on the ground floor to showcase India's democratic heritage, a lounge for MPs, a library, multiple committee rooms, dining areas, and ample parking space.

State-of-the-art facilities

The new building has been designed keeping in view the future increase in the number of members. The Lok Sabha Chamber has 888 seats and the Rajya Sabha chamber has 384 seats. The LS can accommodate 1,272 members during a joint session of the Houses. The new Parliament building is equipped with state-of-the-art facilities and high-tech gadgets to enable members to perform their functions in a better way. The Houses will be paperless with Wi-Fi enabled tablets provided to members. The new building also has six new committee rooms and 92 rooms for use as offices of Ministers.

The public entrances lead to three galleries – the Sangeet Gallery which exhibits dance, song, and musical traditions of India, the Sthapthya Gallery depicts the architectural heritage of the country, and the Shilp Gallery showcases distinct handicraft traditions of different States.

High on symbolism

The new parliament building is home to nearly 5,000 artwork, including paintings, wall panels, stone sculptures, and metal murals. While the interior in the Lok Sabha has motifs and colours of the national bird peacock (on carpets, ceiling and lattice work of windows), a lotus theme runs through the Rajya Sabha chamber. The "Sengol" in the Lok Sabha symbolises India's freedom, sovereignty, and fair governance. A Foucault's Pendulum hanging from the roof of the Constitution Hall is meant to symbolise "the integration of the idea of India with that of the universe". The national emblem made of bronze sits atop the building.

With carpets from Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh, bamboo flooring from Tripura and stone carvings from Rajasthan, the new Parliament reflects India's diverse culture. The teakwood used in the building was sourced from Nagpur in Maharashtra, while the red and white sandstone was procured from Sirmathura in Rajasthan. The Kesharia green stone was from Udaipur, and the red granite from Lakha near Ajmer. The steel structure for the false ceilings in the LS and RS chambers was sourced from the Union Territory of Daman and Diu, while the furniture in the new building was crafted in Mumbai.

Besides, the building used manufactured sand or M-sand from Charkhi Dadri in Haryana for preparing concrete mix for the construction. M-sand is considered environment friendly as it is manufactured by crushing large hard stones or granite and not by dredging of river beds.

It is said that the construction of the new Parliament building gave employment to 60,000 workers and a digital gallery dedicated to them forms part of the complex.

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What is the meaning of term ‘Refugees’?

Imagine fleeing your home leaving everything behind and carrying only what you can. Yes, that’s the plight of refugees all over the world. The term ‘refugee’ has been used to describe the millions worldwide displaced either on account of conflict, persecution or war. When people leave their country to seek protection in neighbouring countries crossing international borders, they are called refugees. While immigrants choose to move to another country for various reasons, refugees are forced to flee their country in the face of violence. With uncertainty staring at them, refugees face several challenges, such as severe hunger, poverty and loss of dear ones, in search of a safe haven and a better life. You might have heard about the refugees from Syria, Myanmar, Ukraine and Afghanistan. While some countries take them in with open arms, others turn them away. Nevertheless, the number of people displaced worldwide has continued to grow at an alarming rate. According to the UNHCR, the UN refugee agency, over 89 million people worldwide were forcibly displaced till the end of 2021, of which over 27 million are refugees. Didn’t the photos of Syrian refugee Alan Kurdi’s lifeless body on the Turkey shore and Afghans struggling to hang on to the aircraft about to take off move us to tears?

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What is meaning of term ‘Privacy law’?

Privacy law has been in the news for quite some time. Every person has their secrets, plans, ideas, etc. which they may not want to disclose or discuss with others. Every citizen in India has the right to privacy though there is no dedicated article in the Indian Constitution. The Supreme Court in 2017 upheld that the right to privacy is a fundamental right flowing from the right to life and personal liberty as enshrined in Article 21 of the Constitution. The right to privacy is the right to keep our personal information private. Though the right to privacy includes both physical privacy and privacy relating to communication, it's more to do with an individual's data privacy in this era of digital communication. Going by this, an individual's personal data should only be collected and used with the permission of that individual. In August 2022, India withdrew a data protection and privacy bill which was first proposed in 2019, saying it was working on a new comprehensive law. The 2019 bill had proposed strict regulations on cross-border data flows which had caused concern among tech giants such as Meta and Google. Experts feel that as the bill proposed giving government departments powers to seek user data from companies, it would lead to misuse of personal data. So at present, India lacks a strong privacy law.

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Did you know PIN stands for Postal Index Number?

When India became independent, there were 23,344 post offices, primarily in urban areas. The postal network has expanded manifold since then, making it the most widely distributed postal system in the world.

Obviously, the postal department needs a foolproof method to ensure that a letter reaches the right address. It is the six-digit number cited at the end of every postal address, which plays the most important role- the PIN code.

Velankar’s formula

PIN stands for Postal Index Number. It was devised by a Sanskrit scholar, Shriram Bhikaji Velankar who had joined the postal service in 1940. An ingenious man, he developed useful mathematical formulae to help his comrades sort the mail.

During the 1971 Indo-Pakistan war, Indian soldiers fighting in Bangladesh were anxious for news from home. As there was no numerical system then, language barriers hindered the ability of the postal department to sort the letters quickly and effectively. Velankar proposed his idea of a PIN code system to Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. The PIN code was introduced on August 15, 1972, on the 25th anniversary of Indian independence.

There are 9 PIN regions in the country. The first 8 are geographical regions and the digit 9 is reserved for the Army Postal Service. The first digit of the PIN code indicates the region. The second digit indicates the sub-region (or postal circle), and the third digit indicates the sorting district within the region. The final three digits are assigned to individual post offices.

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Who was first female President of India?

Pratibha Patil (25 July 2007 – 25 July 2012)

Pratibha Patil was the 12th President of India. She was the first and the only woman to hold this office. She served as the president from 2007 to 2012. She held the post till 25th July, 2012 and was succeeded by Pranab Mukherjee. In her long political career she had held several impressive ministerial portfolios in Maharashtra. A lawyer by profession, she has also served as the Governor of Rajasthan.

Pratibha Patil was born on 19th December 1934, in Nadgaon, a village in the Jalgaon district of Maharashtra. She received her bachelor’s degree in law from Government Law College, Mumbai. She pursued her Masters in Political Science and Economics from Mooljee Jetha College, Jalgaon.

Pratibha Patil began her political career at the age of 27 by joining the Indian National Congress in 1962. On 8th November 2004, she was appointed as the 25th Governor of Rajasthan and became the first woman to hold that office till 2007. In 2007, Pratibha Patil entered the presidential battle, and won with a distinct edge over her rival Bhairon Singh Shekhawat, defeating him by more than three lakh votes. On 25th July 2007, she was sworn in, becoming the first female President of India. She was succeeded by Pranab Mukher jee.

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Who was 10th President of India?

K R Narayanan (25 July 1997 – 25 July 2002)

K R Narayanan was the first Indian president from the Dalit community. He was also the first person from Kerala to be elected as the president of our nation. In 1997, he succeeded Shankar Dayal Sharma as the tenth President of India, occupying the office till 2002. Narayanan did not hesitate to talk his mind, and he is regarded as an independent and assertive president who set several precedents.

K R Narayanan was born on 4th February, 1921 in the village of Uzhavoor in the Kottayam district in Kerala. He was born and brought up in a poor family. He had to walk for miles to reach his school, only to stand outside the class to attend the lectures, as his fees were always overdue.

After enduring such hardships he obtained his BA and MA in English literature from the University of Travancore, present day University of Kerala, standing first in the university. After finishing college he moved to Delhi and took up a job as a journalist. For one year he worked at The Hindu, and later joined The Times of India, as a reporter.

With the help of a scholarship by JRD Tata he studied Economics and Political Science at the London School of Economics. After finishing his education in London, he returned to India. At that time he met Jawaharlal Nehru who offered him a job in the Indian Foreign Service. He joined the IFS in 1949. He was a very good diplomat.

In 1984 on Indira Gandhi’s request Narayanan entered into electoral politics. He won three successive general elections to the Lok Sabha in 1984, 1989, and 1991. He was also a minister in the Rajiv Gandhi cabinet.

In 1992, former prime minister V P Singh suggested his name as the vice president of India. He served as the ninth vice president from 1992 to 1997. After completion of his tenure he was elected as the President of India and assumed office on 25th July 1997. He served for five years and retired in 2002.

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Who was the 9th President of India?

Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma (25 July 1992 – 25 July 1997)

Shankar Dayal Sharma was the ninth President of India, and served his tenure from 1992 to 1997. Before he was elected to the post of president, he served as the eighth vice president of India under R. Venkataraman. Sharma was the only president other than R. Venkataraman in the 20th century, to work with four prime ministers, and appoint three of them.

Shankar Dayal Sharma was born on 19th August 1918 in Bhopal. After completing his education he worked at the Cambridge University and Lucknow University. He was an internationally acclaimed legal luminary and his articles have been published in many reputed international journals.

Sharma was a participant of India’s freedom struggle and also a member of the Indian National Congress. In the year 1952, he became the chief minister of the former state of Bhopal. Later, Sharma served as a communication minister from 1974 to 1977 in the cabinet of Indira Gandhi. Shankar Dayal Sharma was sworn in as the President of India on 25 July 1992 and remained in office till 25 July 1997.

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Who was the eighth President of India?

R. Venkataraman (25July 1987 – 25 July 1992)

Having been elected to the office of the President of India, R. Venkataraman was sworn in on July 25th, 1987. He was the eighth president of the Republic of India. During his tenure, which concluded on July 25th in 1992, India saw a quick succession of four prime ministers-Narasimha Rao, Chandra Shekhar, Rajiv Gandhi, and V.P. Singh. Venkataraman was a very eminent political personality throughout his lifetime.

R. Venkataraman was born on 4th December, 1910, in Rajamadam, Tamil Nadu. He did his under graduation in National College, Tiruchirappalli. Venkataraman obtained his Masters degree in Economics from Loyola College, Madras. He later, became a lawyer.

Venkataraman had actively participated in the Indian Independence movement. After independence he had served as the union finance minister and defence minister. He initiated India’s first missile programme. He was elected as the seventh vice president of India in 1984 and later, in July 1987, he was sworn in as the 8th President of India, serving till 1992.

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Who was the seventh President of India?

Giani Zail Singh (25 July 1982 – 25 July 1987)

Giani Zail Singh, who served as the seventh President of India, was the first Sikh to serve in the post. He held office from 1982 to 1987. His original name was Jarnail Singh. Zail Singh earned the title ‘Giani,’ which means ‘a learned person’, as he was well versed in Sikh doctrines.

Zail Singh was born in a mud house to a humble family in Faridkot district in Punjab. From a very young age he had shown enthusiasm in reading Sikh scriptures, Bhagavad Geeta and Ramayana. He later joined the Indian National Congress and took part in the freedom movement.

After India became independent, he was appointed as the revenue minister of the recently formed Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU). In 1972 he became the chief minister of Punjab. A freedom fighter himself, his work for the people of Punjab was impressive. Prior to his presidency, he had held several ministerial posts in the union cabinet, including that of home minister.

He was elected as the President of India on 25th July 1982 and remained in office till 25th July 1987. Even though some events like Operation Blue Star and the anti-Sikh riots coloured his tenure, some decisions by him won him popularity. He refused to sign the Postal Amendment Bill in 1986, which earned him applause from the civil society.

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When Neelam Sanjiva Reddy became president?

Neelam Sanjiva Reddy (25 July 1977 – 25 July 1982)

Neelam Sanjiva Reddy was the sixth President of India. He held the office from 1977 to 1982. He was a veteran statesman and administrator. He was also the first to be elected unopposed. Reddy was 64 when he was elected as the youngest President of India. He proved his humbleness through two notable gestures; one was renouncing the residency at the Rashtrapati Bhavan, and the other was to allow a 70 per cent cut in his salary, considering the poor economic condition of the nation in 1977.

Neelam Sanjiva Reddy was born in a peasant family at Illuri village in Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh on 19th May 1913. Sanjiva Reddy had his early education at the Theosophical High School at Adyar in Madras. Even though he joined the Arts College at Anantapur for graduation, young Reddy gave up studies to take part in the freedom movement. He was greatly influenced by Mahatma Gandhi. In 1931 he joined the Indian National Congress. He participated in a student satyagraha, which brought him into the limelight. He was jailed for participating in the Quit India Movement.

After independence, he became a member of the Constituent Assembly in 1947. He later became a member of the Rajya Sabha. He also served as the president of the Indian National Congress from 1959 to 1962. Subsequently he served as Union Minister for Transport and Civil Aviation, from January 1966 to March 1967 in Indira Gandhi’s cabinet.

He was elected to the Lok Sabha from the Hindupur constituency. He was chosen as the Speaker of the Lok Sabha on March 17th, 1967. This won him immense recognition. He served his term with such dedication and passion that he is remembered as the best ever Lok Sabha Speaker.

He became the first chief minister of Andhra Pradesh in 1956. Reddy was elected as the President on 21st July, 1977 and was sworn in on 25th July. He was the only candidate to have contested twice in the presidential race, one in 1969 against V.V. Girl, and then in 1977.

As the President, Neelam Sanjiva Reddy visited many states in India. He also visited many foreign lands during his term as the President like the U.S.S.R, Bulgaria, Zambia, U.K, Nepal, Indonesia, Sri Lanka etc. Reddy worked with three prime ministers, Morarji Desai, Charan Singh and Indira Gandhi.

Reddy authored the book Without Fear or Favour: Reminiscences and Reflections of a President. It was published in 1989. He died in 1996 at the age of 83. His samadhi is at Kallahalli, near Bangalore.

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Who was the fifth president of India?

Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed (24 August 1974 – 11 February 1977)

Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed was the fifth President of India, in office from 1974 to 1977. He had keen interest in many fields such as music, fine arts, poetry and sports. He was the second President of India to die in office.

Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed was born on 13th May 1905, at the Hauz Qazi area of Old Delhi. He attended St. Stephen’s College, Delhi and St. Catharine’s College, Cambridge, England. He met Jawaharlal Nehru in England in 1925. Nehru’s progressive ideas influenced him very much. At Nehru’s request, he joined the Indian National Congress and actively participated in the Indian freedom struggle.

He was a member of the Assam Pradesh Congress Committee from 1936. He was later appointed the Minister for Finance, Revenue and Labour in Assam. In 1942, he supported the Quit India Movement, for which he was arrested.

After India gained independence, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed was elected to the Rajya Sabha in 1952. He was elected to the Lok Sabha in 1967 and again in 1971.

Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed was picked for the presidency by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. Thus in 1974, he became the President of India. He is known to have issued the proclamation of the Emergency by signing the papers at midnight, during Indira Gandhi’s tenure as the prime minister.

Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed’s tenure in the office was cut short by his sudden demise due to a heart attack which he suffered on his return from a tour of the Southeast Asian countries only a day before. He died on 11th February, 1977.

Though politics was his forte, he always showed keen interest in sports and many extracurricular activities. He was an excellent tennis player and golfer. In April 1967, he was elected as the president of the All India Cricket Association.

Though he was basically a sports enthusiast, he had excellent taste in music and fine arts too. He enjoyed the poetry of Mirza Ghalib. A medical college, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed Medical College, has been named after him at Barpeta in Assam.

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Who was the Fourth president of India?

V.V. Giri (24 August 1969 – 24 August 1974)

After the death of Dr. Zakir Husain, V.V. Giri became the first ever Acting President of India in 1969. On 20th July 1969, he resigned from the post of Acting President to contest election as an independent candidate. He won the election and held office for a full term of five years from 24th August 1969, to 24th August 1974. He became the only person to be elected as an independent candidate.

He was born in Behrampur in the present Ganjam district of Odisha on 10th August 1894. He completed his initial education at the Khallikote College in Behrampur. In 1913, he went to Ireland to study law at the University College, Dublin. The same year Giri met Gandhiji who influenced him greatly. He didn’t complete his law degree in Ireland and came back to India.

Upon returning to India, he became a member of the Congress party. In 1926, he was elected as the president of the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC). In 1942, he was imprisoned for participating in the Quit India Movement.

In May 1967, he was elected as the third vice president of India and remained in office for the next two years. Then, after the death of Dr. Zakir Husain he became the president. Giri was the first vice president not to complete his full term in office, on account of being elevated to the office of the president and was the third vice president to be elected to the presidency.

His memoir My Life and Times is a very famous book.

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Dr. Zakir Husain (13 May 1967 – 3 May 1969) Dr. Zakir Husain was the third President of India. He was a freedom fighter and educational reformer. He was the first President to die in office. He was aw

Dr. Zakir Husain (13 May 1967 – 3 May 1969)

Dr. Zakir Husain was the third President of India. He was a freedom fighter and educational reformer. He was the first President to die in office. He was awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1963.

Dr. Zakir Husain was born on 8th February 1897, in Hyderabad. He completed his graduation from Muhammadan Anglo Oriental College, which is now popularly known by the name of Aligarh Muslim University. He later received his doctorate in economics from the Frederick William University of Berlin. In 1927, he took over as the head of the Jamia Milia Islamia University. In 1948, he became the Vice Chancellor of Aligarh Muslim University. In 1956, he was nominated to the Rajya Sabha. However, just after a year he was appointed as the Governor of Bihar from 1957 to 1962.

He became the President of India in 1967 but could only occupy the position for a period of two years from 13th May 1967 until his death on 3rd May, 1969. He was buried at the campus of the Jamia Milia Islamia University in New Delhi.

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Who was the philosopher President of India?

Dr. S. Radhakrishnan (13 May 1962 – 13 May 1967)

Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, legendary teacher and philosopher, was India’s second president. He served in office from 1962-1967. He was also the first vice president of India. It was after serving two terms as vice president that he was elected as the president. He was one of India’s most distinguished twentieth-century scholars of comparative religion and philosophy.

He was born in Tiruttani in Tamil Nadu on 5th September 1888 into a poor brahmin family. It was difficult for his father to educate him. Radhakrishnan was awarded scholarships throughout his academic life. He completed his BA and MA in philosophy from Madras Christian College. He later worked as a professor in many of the prestigious universities such as the University of Mysore and Banaras Hindu University. He was very popular among his students.

He entered his political career rather late. In 1931, he was nominated to the League of Nations Committee for Intellectual Cooperation. When India became independent in 1947, he represented the nation at the UNESCO from 1946 to 1952 and was later Ambassador of India to the Soviet Union, from 1949 to 1952.

Dr. Radhakrishnan was elected as the first vice president of India in 1952, and elected as the second president of India in 1962.

He authored many books. Some among his major philosophical works were Indian Philosophy, The Hindu View of Life and An Idealist View of Life. His birthday, which falls on 5th September, is celebrated as Teacher’s Day in India since 1962. He was honoured with the Bharat Ratna in 1954.

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Who was the first present president of India?

Dr. Rajendra Prasad (26 January 1950 – 13 May 1962)

Dr. Rajendra Prasad served as the first president of independent India. He was the only Indian president to serve two full terms, from 1950 to 1962. As the first president, he set himself as a strong example for others to follow. A lawyer by profession, he had been an influential leader during the Indian freedom struggle.

Dr. Rajendra Prasad was born in Zeradai, in Bihar on 3rd December 1884. He was very good at his studies. In 1915, he graduated with honours with a Master’s degree in law, winning a gold medal. In 1937, he completed his doctorate in law from the Allahabad University.

Rajendra Prasad joined the Indian National Congress in 1911. He was arrested for his support of the Salt Satyagraha Movement of 1931, and the Quit India Movement of 1942. In September 1946, he became the Minister for Food and Agriculture in the interim government preceding full independence. From 1946 to 1949, he presided over the Indian Constituent Assembly, and helped to shape the constitution. He retired from public life in 1962, after serving two terms as the President of India for 12 years, because of his deteriorating health. He was honoured with Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award in 1962.

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What is PURA?

The idea of this programme is to create economic opportunities in rural areas by supplying urban infrastructure and services. It is a Rural Development Programme suggested by Dr. Kalam in ‘Target 3 Billion’ to develop India.

The origins of PURA can be traced in the work done by Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute in the early 1990s on energy self-sufficiency at the taluka level.

First Dr. Kalam insists on building good roads in rural areas for physical connectivity. Then, electronic connectivity by way of communication networks. Finally, he recommends knowledge connectivity through setting up professional and technical institutions.

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A HARBINGER OF CHANGE

Dr BR Ambedkar is one of the most luminous figures of modern Indian history and the principal architect of our constitution. He endeavoured to build a new social order based on the democratic ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity. Let us look back at one of his most iconic speeches at the Constituent Assembly.

On November 24, 1949, B. R. Ambedkar presented his concluding remarks on the adoption of the Constitution in the Constituent Assembly. His address recalled the detailed discussions and deliberations on fundamental rights, union powers, and upliftment of minorities that laid the foundation of our Constitution’s legal framework. But what makes this speech significant in present-day’s political environment is its orators prophetic predictions of the factors that threaten India’s political identity as a socialist democracy.

The quest of the hour Even at the helm of liberty, what crippled Ambedkars mind with anxiety was the thought of the stronghold ideals of caste and creed had on the average citizen. Recalling past incidents like the invasion of Sind by Mahommed-Bin-Kasim, he elaborated on how India had once before lost its independence to the treachery of its people and the rise of new political parties that possess diverse and opposing political standing can cause history to repeat itself.

He declared that the day politicians choose creed over the country, the purpose of democracy will be defeated.

Therefore, the quest of the hour was to ensure that proper measures are taken to enforce and safeguard equality, liberty and fraternity as a nascent nation moved forward

Abandon the grammar of anarchy

In his address to the constituent assembly, Ambedkar implored to hold fast to constitutional methods of achieving social and economic objectives and abandon methods of rebellion like civil disobedience, non-cooperation and satyagraha. According to him, in a society that is built on good well and justice and is governed by leaders elected by the people there is no valid justification to employ unsanctioned methods of rebellion.

Dangers of hero-worship Calling Bhakti culture or Hero-worship a sure road to degradation and eventual dictatorship, he said “There is nothing wrong in being grateful to great men who have rendered lifelong services to the country. But there are limits to gratefulness… With independence, we have lost the excuse of blaming the British for anything going wrong. If hereafter things go wrong, we will have nobody to blame. Except ourselves…If we wish to preserve the Constitution…let us resolve not to be tardy in the recognition of the evils that lie across our path…nor to be weak in our initiative to remove them. That is the only way to serve the country. I know of no better.” (excerpt from the speech)

Key takeaways from the speech

1. Equality, liberty and fraternity are the foundations of our constitution.

2. Blind faith in any entity or individual is an enemy of the truth.

3. A good citizen understands the responsibility that comes with freedom.

DID YOU KNOW?

  1. Dr Ambedkar was the first law minister of Independent India
  2. Ambedkar’s 20-page autobiography titled “Waiting for a Visa” is part of Columbia University’s curriculum.
  3. Ambedkar was the first member of the backward classes to become a lawyer.
  4. Ambedkar was the first and only Satyagrahi to conduct “Satyagraha for drinking water”. Ambedkar had master’s degrees in around 64 subjects and was the first Indian to obtain a doctorate in Economics from a foreign university.

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WHAT IS UNIFORM CIVIL CODE?

The uniform civil code has sparked a debate yet again in the country, with some calling it “essential” and others condemning it as “unconstitutional”. But what is a Uniform Civil Code? Let’s find out

What’s a Uniform Civil Code?

India is a country with its people professing different religions, following diverse traditions and celebrating varied festivals – a fine example of unity in diversity A Uniform Civil Code refers to a common set of laws governing personal matters such as marriage, divorce, adoption. succession, inheritance and such other things.

The UCC comes under Article 44 of the Constitution of India, which states that “The State shall endeavour to secure for the citizens a uniform civil code throughout the territory of India”. This was envisaged by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, the father of the Indian Constitution. The UCC proposes a uniform personal law that would be applicable to personal matters of all citizens irrespective of their religion, caste, or gender. Personal laws are different from public laws, and currently, personal laws of different communities are governed by their respective religions, following customs and practices prescribed in their religious texts.

The primary objective of UCC is to treat all citizens equally irrespective of their religion and provide protection to vulnerable people. The draft of the UCC is yet to be finalised. Here it’s significant to note that India’s criminal laws are uniform and apply to everyone equally irrespective of their religious beliefs.

What’s the need for a UCC?

There is no uniformity because of the differences that exist within the present personal laws of different communities. For example, there are different succession laws. In some communities. the rights of women are limited. They cannot get an equal share in the property of their deceased parents as only male heirs are entitled to a bigger share in the property.

In some cases, women do not have a say in issues such as divorce, maintenance, etc. These practices governed by religion are at odds with the fundamental rights guaranteed in the Constitution. Such things are seen as depriving women of their rights and being unfair to them, hence the need for a UCC is deeply felt. With women becoming more independent due to rise in literacy rates and social awareness, many laws have been and are being amended to protect their interests.

The UCC, if enacted, is expected to simplify the laws that now remain segregated on the basis of religious beliefs, ensure uniformity and promote unity. However, concerns have been expressessed that in the urge for bringing in uniformity the secular and cultural fabric of the country is not threatened.

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What is NATO?

NATO is an abbreviation that stands for North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, which is a military alliance that includes the U.S, Canada, the U.K and France along with 8 other countries, formed in 1949.

NATO was formed to counter the threat from the Soviet Union after the Second World War. In response, the U.S.S.R built its own military alliance against NATO in 1955. It was called the Warsaw Pact. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Warsaw Pact was dissolved and some of its member countries joined NATO.

The NATO alliance now has a total of 30 member countries with the goal to carry out the North Atlantic Treaty, which was signed on April 4, 1949. NATO constitutes a system of collective security. In this system, an attack on one member state is considered as an attack on all and it calls for a collective response. This guarantees collective security for all NATO member states. NATO’s headquarters are in Brussels in Belgium.

2 North American countries, 27 European countries and 1 Eurasian country form the NATO. On March 20, 2020 North Macedonia, with a population of two million people, became the newest and the 30th member of NATO. The U.S.A contributes around three-fourths of NATO’s total budget.

Another striking fact is that NATO played a prominent part in the current conflicts between Russia and Ukraine indirectly.

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How did the Provisional Government perform?

The February Revolution marked the end of the Romanov dynasty, and Tsar Nicholas II had to step down. The parliament then formed the Russian Provisional Government which ruled the country for a brief period. This was not an elected body, and had Prince Lvov as its prime minister.

The Provisional Government did make some efforts to make things right in the trauma-ridden country. It abolished the death penalty and all political offenders in prison and in exile were granted amnesty. It also gave the people civil liberties and put an end to religious and ethnic discrimination.

However, the Provisional Government failed to improve the people’s quality of life, and did not deal with land reforms. Also, there was no effort to end the war; the Provisional Government’s policy was that Russia should continue fighting, honouring its commitments to its allies in World War I. All this made the people more and unhappy with the Provisional Government, and its rule lasted only eight months.

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Who is the longest-reigning british monarch in world history?

Queen Elizabeth II was the first British sovereign to celebrate the Platinum Jubilee (70 years of service) recently. She is currently the world’s longest reigning monarch, having ascended the throne on February 6, 1952. However, the Queen still has some way to go to achieve the longest recorded reign-that of Louis XIV of France, also known as Louis the Great. Louis XIV was King of France for 72 years and 110 days, from 1643 to until his demise in 1715.

Elizabeth I – the last Tudor monarch – was born at Greenwich on 7 September 1533, the daughter of Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne Boleyn. Her early life was full of uncertainties, and her chances of succeeding to the throne seemed very slight once her half-brother Edward was born in 1537. She was then third in line behind her Roman Catholic half-sister, Princess Mary. Roman Catholics, indeed, always considered her illegitimate and she only narrowly escaped execution in the wake of a failed rebellion against Queen Mary in 1554.

Elizabeth succeeded to the throne on her half-sister’s death in November 1558. She was very well-educated (fluent in five languages), and had inherited intelligence, determination and shrewdness from both parents. Her 45-year reign is generally considered one of the most glorious in English history. During it a secure Church of England was established. Its doctrines were laid down in the 39 Articles of 1563, a compromise between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. Elizabeth herself refused to ‘make windows into men’s souls … there is only one Jesus Christ and all the rest is a dispute over trifles’; she asked for outward uniformity. Most of her subjects accepted the compromise as the basis of their faith, and her church settlement probably saved England from religious wars like those which France suffered in the second half of the 16th century.

Although autocratic and capricious, Elizabeth had astute political judgement and chose her ministers well; these included William Cecil, later Lord Burghley (Secretary of State), Sir Christopher Hatton (Lord Chancellor) and Sir Francis Walsingham (in charge of intelligence and also a Secretary of State).

Overall, Elizabeth’s administration consisted of some 600 officials administering the great offices of state, and a similar number dealing with the Crown lands (which funded the administrative costs). Social and economic regulation and law and order remained in the hands of the sheriffs at local level, supported by unpaid justices of the peace.

Elizabeth’s reign was one of considerable danger and difficulty for many, with threats of invasion from Spain through Ireland, and from France through Scotland. Much of northern England was in rebellion in 1569-70. A papal bull of 1570 specifically released Elizabeth’s subjects from their allegiance, and she passed harsh laws against Roman Catholics after plots against her life were discovered.

As a likely successor to Elizabeth, Mary spent 19 years as Elizabeth’s prisoner because Mary was the focus for rebellion and possible assassination plots, such as the Babington Plot of 1586.

During Elizabeth’s long reign, the nation also suffered from high prices and severe economic depression, especially in the countryside, during the 1590s. The war against Spain was not very successful after the Armada had been beaten and, together with other campaigns, it was very costly.

Despite the combination of financial strains and prolonged war after 1588, Parliament was not summoned more often. There were only 16 sittings of the Commons during Elizabeth’s reign, five of which were in the period 1588-1601. Although Elizabeth freely used her power to veto legislation, she avoided confrontation and did not attempt to define Parliament’s constitutional position and rights.

Overall, Elizabeth’s always shrewd and, when necessary, decisive leadership brought successes during a period of great danger both at home and abroad. She died at Richmond Palace on 24 March 1603, having become a legend in her lifetime. The date of her accession was a national holiday for two hundred years.

Credit : ROYAL.UK

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