Category Science

HOW ARE EXPERIMENTS DESIGNED?

In the world around us, nothing happens in isolation. One event affects another. The activity of one living thing changes the lives of other organisms. As the natural world is very complicated, it can be difficult to see clearly how and why things are happening. One of the most important factors in designing an experiment is to try to isolate the particular event or substance being studied, so that the results of the experiment are not influenced by other things. For example, to see if a plant needs sunlight to live, you can put it in the dark and watch what happens. But it is important to make sure that the plant still has the same soil, amount of water and temperature as before, so that you can be sure that any changes in the plant are a result of the lack of sunlight.

Many experiments use something called a control. For example, to test a new drug, a hundred people may be given it and their health monitored very carefully. A hundred similar people may be given no drug or a harmless substance and their health monitored just as accurately. They are the control. It is the difference in results between the two groups of people that is important. The control group is designed to show what would have happened to the first group if it had received no drugs. Only then can scientists tell if the drug has had an effect.

An experiment is a type of research method in which you manipulate one or more independent variables and measure their effect on one or more dependent variables. Experimental design means creating a set of procedures to test a hypothesis.

A good experimental design requires a strong understanding of the system you are studying. By first considering the variables and how they are related, you can make predictions that are specific and testable.

How widely and finely you vary your independent variable will determine the level of detail and the external validity of your results. Your decisions about randomization, experimental controls, and independent vs repeated-measures designs will determine the internal validity of your experiment.

Picture Credit : Google

WHAT IS THE MAIN FIELDS OF SCIENCE?

Traditionally, science has been divided into natural science, which deals with living things, and physical science, which is concerned with the matter that makes up the universe and how it behaves. Of course, these two fields overlap a great deal. There are also more detailed labels for different areas of scientific study.

Science is a systematic study of the nature and manners of an object and the natural universe that is established around measurement, experiment, observation and formulation of laws. There are four major branches of science; each branch is categorized in different type of subjects that covers different areas of studies such us chemistry, physics, math, astronomy etc. The four major branches of science are, Mathematics and logic, biological science, physical science and social science.

The first branch is mathematics & logic. Mathematics and logic deals with abstract concepts. It goes hand in hand as both are needed in relation to finding out how social sciences and natural sciences work. They are also both needed in forming laws, theories and hypothesis. Even scientist needs this branch of science, as they would not come to a conclusion without any formulation.

Another branch of science is Biological science. This on the other hand deals with the study of living things. Biological science is divided into different sub topics. One of them is Zoology. It is a category under biology that focuses on the study of animal life. The study includes, and are not limited to, evolution, classification of both extinct and the living, structure and habits. Zoology also deals with embryology, which is the study of the animals’ development of the embryo, from fertilization to fetus.

Another category is Botany. This category is the scientific study of plants and its life cycle. Including in this study are the plants diseases, reproduction, growth, chemical properties, structure and relationship. Ecology on the other hand deals with the study of the environment and its relationship to living organisms. The last category of biological science is Paleontology. This category of biology deals with the study of prehistoric era. Fossils are not just the main concern in paleontology, it can include any subject that is related with the past, and in other words it can be a study of the whole history of mankind and its life on earth.

Social science is one of the four major branches of science. This on the other hand is the study of the society and man’s relationship to it. This study includes Anthropology, which is the study of human behavior and human development that considers cultural, social and physical aspects. Economics is another category under social science; this science studies goods and services, how they are being manufactured, distributed and consumed. Sociology meanwhile is the study of human society; it is more concerned in group activities and urban studies. This study is part of the social science branch, although synonymous when it comes to the name, sociology is more compound since it uses different methods of critical analysis and investigation to come up with a conclusion.

The study of earth’s phenomena, its land and features is what Geology is all about. Another category of social science, it can be divided into two parts, which are the physical geography that deals with the land and human geography that deals with the land’s inhabitants. Philosophy on the other hand is the pursuit of knowledge by means of moral, intellectual and self-discipline. Studying human behavior according to its principles is what psychology is all about.

Physical science, the last in four major branches of science, has geology, physics, chemistry and astronomy as its categories. Astronomy is the study of the heavenly bodies, like the stars, galaxies, comets and planets, while chemistry is the study of different substances, the changes they undergo and their compositions. It can be divided as well into two, which are the organic and inorganic chemistry. Physics is the study of matter and geology is the study of the physical property and composition of the earth.

Picture Credit : Google

WHO WAS THE FIRST SCIENTIST?

Scientists study how and why things happen, or why they are as they are. They can use this knowledge in many different ways: to predict what will happen in certain circumstances, to understand why bodies and machines sometimes go wrong and to try to prevent this or put it right, and to develop inventions that will make a difference to the world. The first scientist was probably a very early human or even human ancestor, who noticed something about the world, began to think about why this might be so and tried to test these ideas.

Aristotle is considered by many to be the first scientist, although the term postdates him by more than two millennia. In Greece in the fourth century BC, he pioneered the techniques of logic, observation, inquiry and demonstration. These would shape Western philosophical and scientific culture through the Middle Ages and the early modern era, and would influence some aspects of the natural sciences even up to the eighteenth century.

Armand Marie Leroi’s reappraisal of this colossus, The Lagoon, is one of the most inspired and inspiring I have read. It combines a serious, accessible overview of Aristotle’s methods, ideas, mistakes and influence with a contextualizing travelogue that also found expression in Leroi’s 2010 BBC television documentary Aristotle’s Lagoon. Leroi’s ambitious aim is to return Aristotle to the pantheon of biology’s greats, alongside Charles Darwin and Carl Linnaeus. He has achieved it.

Leroi, an evolutionary developmental biologist, visits the Greek island of Lesvos — where Aristotle made observations of natural phenomena and anatomical structures — and puts his own observations in dialogue with those of the philosopher. It was in the island’s lagoon of Kolpos Kalloni that Aristotle was struck by the anatomy of fish and molluscs, and started trying to account for the function of their parts. Leroi’s vivid descriptions of the elements that inspired Aristotle’s biological doctrines — places, colours, smells, marine landscapes and animals, and local lore — enjoin the reader to grasp them viscerally as well as intellectually.

Aristotle’s time on Lesvos was only a chapter in a life of discoveries, and Leroi covers those signal achievements with breadth and depth. He details the theoretical and methodological principles governing the functional anatomy of species from pigeons to tortoises, discussed by Aristotle in On the Parts of Animals, as well as the descriptive zoology expounded in his History of Animals. For instance, Leroi explores Aristotle’s theory of causation, based on the distinction between material, efficient, formal and final causes. He looks at the philosopher’s views on the directedness of natural phenomena and the role played by necessity and hazard. He sketches out the theory of four elements (fire, air, water and earth) as the prime constituents of natural bodies. And he looks at the theory of soul and its relationship to the body — through which Aristotle accounted for aspects of physiology and psychology, from nutrition to rational thinking.

Picture Credit : Google

COULD SCIENCE FICTION STORIES EVER COME TRUE?

Science fiction stories do come true all the time. Less than a hundred years ago, space travel was a fantasy invented by storytellers such as H G Wells and Jules Verne. When we consider the extraordinary advances made in the fields of travel and communications in the past century, it is tempting to believe that Star Trek may in the future be nearer to reality than at present seems possible!

Science fiction introduces us to elaborate, futuristic worlds that often sound like nothing more than a dream. But humanity has made incredible technological advancements over the past 100 years, and many of the ideas predicted in science fiction have now become reality.

Some predictions, like self-driving cars, are still in the early stages, but scientists and engineers have reached many other milestones first described in fiction, such as bringing people to the moon.

In 1865, author Jules Verne released From Earth to the Moon, which described three Americans’ mission to launch a spacecraft and land on the moon. Parts of the novel were similar to the first real moon landing, which occurred 104 years later.

Both the NASA astronauts and Verne’s characters launched from Florida. NASA’s command module was named Columbia in another similarity to Verne’s fictional spacecraft, the Columbia. NASA astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin succeeded in walking on the lunar surface in 1969 while Michael Collins remained in the spacecraft. The three men in Verne’s novel, however, never stepped foot on the moon.

NASA has acknowledged other similarities between Apollo 11 and Verne’s novel as well. For example, the space agency said the Columbiad’s shape and size closely resembled the Apollo spacecraft. The novel also claimed a telescope would be able to see the Columbiad mission’s progress. When an explosion caused a malfunction during the Apollo 13 mission in 1970, a telescope at Johnson Space Center was able to see the accident, which took place more than 200,000 miles away (300,000 kilometres).

3D holograms have been featured in sci-fi for decades. In 2017, an Australian company claimed it has managed to produce a hologram table that resembles the futuristic holograms from the original “Star Wars” movie. Princess Leia called for Luke Skywalker’s help using a holographic message in the 1977 “Star Wars” movie. Since then, scientists have worked on turning this technology into reality.

Euclideon, an Australian company, says it has made the first multi-user hologram table in the world. As many as four people can interact with the hologram at once using motion-tracking glasses. Though Euclideon’s invention has been met with some scepticism, but New Atlas reported in November 2018 that the company is moving forward with bringing the hologram technology to market.

“Star Trek” featured replicators that could 3D print food and everyday objects in a few seconds. Scientists are now using 3D printing technology to make objects out of plastic, metal, and glass, though the process is not nearly as fast.

The New York-based nonprofit Mattershift says it has developed carbon nanotube membranes that could separate and put together individual molecules.

Forbes reported that Mattershift CEO Rob McGinnis says the membranes could help scientists make anything out of a set of basic molecular building blocks. “We’re talking about printing matter from the air,” McGinnis said, according to Forbes. “Imagine having one of these devices with you on Mars. You could print food, fuels, building materials, and medicines from the atmosphere and soil or recycled parts without having to transport them from Earth.” In addition, startups like Natural Machines are working on making 3D food printers commercially available.

The Iron Man suit has become legendary since first appearing in Marvel Comics. People won’t be flying around in suits anytime soon, but the US military is developing high-tech suits that will mirror some of Iron Man’s capabilities. The military’s TALOS program – short for Tactical Assault Light Operator Suit – aims to enhance human combat.

TALOS will take in huge amounts of data from drones, naval sensors, and reconnaissance aircraft to better inform soldiers, Military Times reported. The suit is expected to be light and include life support systems that will track soldiers’ vitals. 3D sound pickups built into the suit will also help soldiers figure out where incoming fire and vehicles are coming from.

Picture Credit : Google

WHAT ARE THE MAIN PROBLEMS OF SPACE TRAVEL?

The biggest problems of space travel all have to do with the enormous distances that are involved. Using today’s technology, it would take years to reach even the nearest planets, and generations of space travellers would live and die on a journey to more distant ones. For this to happen, spacecraft will need to be self-supporting or able to travel faster than the speed of light.

The first hazard of a human mission to Mars is also the most difficult to visualize because, well, space radiation is invisible to the human eye. Radiation is not only stealthy, but considered one of the most menacing of hazards.

Above Earth’s natural protection, radiation exposure increases cancer risk, damages the central nervous system, can alter cognitive function, reduce motor function and prompt behavioral changes. To learn what can happen above low-Earth orbit, NASA studies how radiation affects biological samples using a ground-based research laboratory.

Mars is, on average, 140 million miles from Earth. Rather than a three-day lunar trip, astronauts would be leaving our planet for roughly three years. While International Space Station expeditions serve as a rough foundation for the expected impact on planning logistics for such a trip, the data isn’t always comparable. If a medical event or emergency happens on the station, the crew can return home within hours. Additionally, cargo vehicles continual resupply the crews with fresh food, medical equipment, and other resources. Once you burn your engines for Mars, there is no turning back and no resupply.

Planning and self-sufficiency are essential keys to a successful Martian mission. Facing a communication delay of up to 20 minutes one way and the possibility of equipment failures or a medical emergency, astronauts must be capable of confronting an array of situations without support from their fellow team on Earth.

The variance of gravity that astronauts will encounter is the hazard of a human mission. On Mars, astronauts would need to live and work in three-eighths of Earth’s gravitational pull for up to two years. Additionally, on the six-month trek between the planets, explorers will experience total weightlessness. 

Besides Mars and deep space there is a third gravity field that must be considered. When astronauts finally return home they will need to readapt many of the systems in their bodies to Earth’s gravity. Bones, muscles, cardiovascular system have all been impacted by years without standard gravity. To further complicate the problem, when astronauts transition from one gravity field to another, it’s usually quite an intense experience. Blasting off from the surface of a planet or a hurdling descent through an atmosphere is many times the force of gravity.

Picture Credit : Google

COULD HUMANS FIND HOMES ELSEWHERE IN THE UNIVERSE?

As there are billions of planets in our universe, it is likely that some of them could support life, but the vast distances that would have to be travelled to reach them are at present an immense problem. More possible is the idea that humans could build self-supporting communities on nearby planets. Ideally, these would need to be enclosed, containing their own atmosphere and able to support a variety of plant and animal life just as our planet does. Experiments are being made t9 see if it is possible to build artificial ecosystems like this here on Earth.

We know of only one living planet: our own. But we know it very well. As we move to the next stage in the search for alien life, the effort will require the expertise of planetary scientists, heliophysicists and astrophysicists. However, the knowledge and tools NASA has developed to study life on Earth will also be one of the greatest assets to the quest.

There are two main questions in the search for life: With so many places to look, how can we focus in on the places most likely to harbor life? What are the unmistakable signs of life — even if it comes in a form we don’t fully understand?

“Before we go looking for life, we’re trying to figure out what kinds of planets could have a climate that’s conducive to life,” del Genio said. “We’re using the same climate models that we use to project 21st century climate change on Earth to do simulations of specific exoplanets that have been discovered, and hypothetical ones.”

Del Genio recognizes that life may well exist in forms and places so bizarre that it might be substantially different from Earth. But in this early phase of the search, “We have to go with the kind of life we know,” he said.

Further, we should make sure we use the detailed knowledge of Earth. In particular, we should make sure of our discoveries on life in various environments on Earth, our knowledge of how our planet and its life have affected each other over Earth history, and our satellite observations of Earth’s climate.

Above all else, that means liquid water. Every cell we know of — even bacteria around deep-sea vents that exist without sunlight — requires water.

Picture Credit : Google