Category Science

How do we study the internal structure of plants?

                           The botanists study the internal structure of plants mainly by examining their cross section under a microscope. These thin slices can tell us a lot about the structure of the cells that make up the plant and how they vary in different parts of the plant. In 1665, a scientist named Robert Hooke looked at a piece of cork (a material from the thick outer part of certain trees) under a microscope and saw that it was made up of many tiny compartments. He named them cells and this term has been in use since then. The equipments needed for obtaining the sections include a sharp razor, a small fine brush and a number of watch glasses and microscopic slides. The razor is stroked across the top towards the body, cutting off thin slices as required. Cross-sections as well as the longitudinal pieces are obtained in the same manner. To obtain best results the razor and the material must be kept moist with water in case of fresh material or alcohol if the specimen is a preserved one. To prevent shrinkage the sections shaved off are brushed into water or alcohol. For quick examination the sections are placed on a slide with a drop of glycerine. The thin ones that show the cells clearly can be stained for permanent use. In fact staining is a process of adding dyes to show the different tissues in different colours. Many stains are dissolved in alcohol and before staining the sections must be placed in alcohol. After a certain period in the stain(s) the section is transferred to a series of watch glasses full of alcohol. This removes water and the excess stain. The alcohol is removed by dipping the sections in clove oil or benzene. The section is then placed on a clean glass slide with a drop of Canada Balsam (a resinous glue). A thin glass is added as a cover-slip and sealed by warming the balsam to harden it. The slide, properly labelled, can then be kept and examined whenever necessary. Details of time exposure for staining varies with the stain and material used. The information can be collected from a text-book or worked out by practice. In laboratory analysis many modern techniques are being adopted for in-depth studies on the subject.

 

Why do plants and animals become extinct?

     

              When Darwin propounded his theory of ‘Survival of the fittest’, it created a great deal of controversy during those days. But gradually it started receiving a wider acceptance as many species were found to be either extinct or facing extinction for the reasons best explained by Darwin. Since the evolution of plant and animal lives, quite a few of them have faced complete extinction and others are facing the dangers of extinction. Hence the conservation of certain species that face extinction has drawn the worldwide attention. These species have been categorized as ‘endangered species’. 

                    Factors responsible for endangering the existence of these species are both natural and man-made. Firstly, the increasing human population is encroaching more and more land, and thus creating a scarcity of land for the wildlife to survive. Forests and heaths have been removed to make way for farming. Large-scale deforestation for wood and industrialization is another cause of the loss of wildlife. Secondly, man has hunted down many animals to extinction — auk and dodo are distinct examples of it. Pollution is also affecting the lives of many animals. Every year millions of sea-birds die unpleasant deaths as their feathers get covered with sticky, black oil waste. The natural causes are the unsuitable conditions of temperature and pressure, lack of proper food material, natural calamities etc. 

 

 

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Can one tree produce the fruit of a different tree?

            An affirmative reply to this question is amazing but true. It is a fact that many trees can produce the fruit of another kind of tree by a simple method called ‘grafting’. It is an artificial method or technique of vegetative reproduction in which a small branch or bud of any desired plant is inserted into another rooted plant. This is called plant propagation. If a bud from a twig of pear tree is carefully inserted in a slit made in the bark of a quince bush, a pear twig will grow. The quince bush will bear both pears and quinces.

            In the same way, an almond tree can be made to produce both peaches and almonds. Although sometimes grafting is used to produce freak trees and bushes, this technique is of immense importance in agriculture. Lots of experiments in this field are still being carried on to produce better and new varieties of fruits, flowers and corns etc.

            The greatest advantage of grafting is that it can be used to better the quality and quantity of a particular product. It is possible for a nurseryman or gardener to be sure that his young trees or shrubs will bear the same quality and variety of fruit as the parent tree. A twig taken from a tree and grafted into another tree will produce the same type of fruit borne by the tree from which it was taken.

            There are many methods for inserting the budded twigs or scions, as they are called, into the stock of another plant, but two rules must always be followed. First, only related species of trees or shrubs can he grafted. This implies that apples can be grafted onto pear and quince trees, and peaches can be grafted onto apricot, almond, plum or other stone fruit trees. It is impossible to graft apples on a peach tree. Secondly, the cambium layer (a layer of actively dividing cells) which carries the vital sap of scion must touch the cambium layer of the stock on which it is grafted. Otherwise the grafted twig cannot grow.

            There are different techniques of grafting. It can range from inserting a single bud under the bark to grafting long twigs across the wound of a tree in order to heal wide wounds in the bark. Tissue culture is popular these days in which cells from a plant are removed to propagate in another plant to obtain a hybrid product or the product of the original plant.

            The technique of grafting is now widely applied in case of animals as well as human beings. There have been surgical operations in which a bone taken from the ribs has actually been grafted onto the nasal bone to form a new nose. But the best application is in cases of severe burning where the healthy skin from one part of the body is grafted onto the burnt tissues to remove scars.

Do some plants also move?

               One of the fundamental differences between plants and animals is that animals can move from place to place whereas plants lack mobility. But inconsistent with this general distinction, there are some plants which move on their own. For example, slime molds have amoeba like movement whereby they ‘coze’ from one place to another. Some types of algae have whip like flagellas, they use to paddle themselves through water. Many plants particularly, the lower ones, produce mobile male gametes which swim about in order to find eggs to fertilize. Englena is a protozoa which is capable of swimming. Apart from these exceptions, the movement of plants is usually confined to the movement of some parts of it while the plant itself remains fixed at one place.

               There are three basic types of plant movements: tropisms, nutations and nastic movements. 

               A tropism is a growth response towards or away from something caused by a specific environmental stimulus. The direction of growth is determined by the stimulus. When it is towards the stimulus, it is caller positive tropism and when away from it, it is called negative tropism.

               Tropisms are caused by special growth hormones called auxins. In most of the cases, the stimulus causes the auxins to collect on one side of an affected organ. This causes the cells on that side to grow and divides more quickly than the cells on the other side. As a result, the organ bends away from the side with the most auxins.

               Tropism is of several types. Phototropism is a growth response to the stimulus of light and auxins are concentrated on the side away from the light. This causes stems and leaves to grow towards light and roots grow away from light. Geotropism is the growth towards the gravity of earth. Roofs show positive geotropism while stems show negative geotropism. Hydrotropism is the growth response to the stimulus of water. Roots grow towards water and often move great distances to areas of moist soil. 

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Who is called the Father of Modern Chemistry?

              He was the man who first proved that air contains two gases: oxygen and nitrogen. Also he established that when a substance is burnt it combines with oxygen in the air. This really moved chemistry into the modern age, because it explained for the first time what really happens during the important chemical process of burning. This great scientist, Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, was born on August 26, 1746 in Paris and is called the ‘Father of Modern Chemistry’. After completing his education, he first became a lawyer and worked as a tax collector. In his spare time he conducted research work.

              In 1766, he won a gold medal for his suggestions on how to light the streets of Paris. He was later given the job of a Gunpowder Officer. Lavoisier did a great deal of research on combustion. In 1772, he proved through an experiment that the ash from burnt metals is heavier than the original metals. Earlier people believed that when such things are burnt, they give off a substance called phlogiston. Lavoisier proved that during the process of burning something was added to the substance. 

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When was Morse code first used?

Morse code is a system of sounds that telegraphers and radio operators use to send messages through wire or radio. This involves a system of dots or short signals, dashes or long signals and spaces. Each letter of the alphabet, plus numbers and other symbols, are represented by groups of dots and dashes. The Morse code is named after Samuel Morse of USA who developed it in 1938. He also patented the telegraph in 1840 and was credited with the invention of telegraph.

The first message in Morse code was taped out in the United States over a telegraph line from Baltimore to Washington by Samuel Morse on May 24, 1844. The message was, ‘What hath God wrought’. Morse code can also be signalled by lights.

In 1837 Morse exhibited his first successful telegraph instrument. By 1838 he had developed the Morse code. But it was not until 1843 that Morse built the first telegraph line in the United States from Baltimore to Washington. In the following year, i.e. 1844, he succeeded in sending the first message. 

Telegraph messages are sent by pressing down a telegraph key. The dot is made by pressing down the key and releasing it quickly. This produces a rapid ‘click-clack’ sound in the receiver at the other end of the wire or the radio receiver. In the case of radio telegraph, the sound is more like a musical note. A short dash is held twice as long as a dot. A long dash is equal to four dots. The space between letters is sounded by ‘three dots’. A space that is part of a letter combination equals two dots.

Even today, in many countries, all telegraph messages and many new items are being transmitted by Morse code. Today most of the telegraph messages are sent by automatic printing telegraph machines called teleprinters, and by automatic facsimile like fax or electronic mail.