Category Science

Why was the Royal Society formed?

The Royal Society was the leading national organization for the promotion of scientific research in Britain. It is also the oldest national scientific society in the world.

The origin of the society can be traced back to November 28, 1660, when twelve men met. They decided to set up a College for promoting ‘Physico-Mathematicall Experimentall Learning’. These men included scientist Robert Boyle, architect Christopher Wren, Bishop John Wilkins and the courtiers Sir Robert Moray and William, 2nd Viscount Brouncker.

Brouncker went on to become the first president of the Royal Society. King Charles II granted a royal charter for it as ‘The Royal Society’. Through the royal charter the society got an institutional structure- a president, treasurer, secretaries, and council. The society has always remained a voluntary organization, independent of the British state despite receiving royal patronage from the beginning.

The conduct and communication of science was revolutionized by the Society. In 1665 itself, Hooke’s Micrographia and the first issue of Philosophical Transactions were published. Philosophical Transactions is now the oldest continuously-published science journal in the world.

The Royal Society also published Isaac Newton’s Principia Mathematica, and Benjamin Franklin’s kite experiment demonstrating the electrical nature of lightning.

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Why is it said that Isaac Newton was not a good teacher?

Newton was a mathematics professor at Trinity College, Cambridge. But he was not a successful teacher. Newton preferred to spend his time alone in the laboratory, which he built himself, or in the small garden outside his rooms.

Only a few students attended his classes and fewer still understood what he said. A secretary later commented that often, Newton ended up teaching his walls with no students in front of him!

Not even one student who studied mathematics under Newton in the thirty years of his teaching career dedicated himself to the study of mathematics.

Newton’s absent-mindedness was also well known. He would sometimes stay in bed an entire day pondering upon a particular problem. If he received visitors while he was immersed in a new idea, Newton would simply walk into another room to continue thinking; completely forgetting that somebody was awaiting him in the other room.

By the 1670s, Trinity College became a lonely place for him. He enjoyed the brotherhood of similar minds and hence, he eagerly accepted the offer to join the Royal Society.

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When was Newton’s Opticks published?

The English version of Opticks: or A Treatise of the Reflexions, Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of Light was published in 1704. A Latin translation of the book appeared in 1706. This is Newton’s second major book on physical science. It analyses the fundamental nature of light.

The book covers discoveries and theories concerning light and colour made by Newton in 33 years. It deals with ideas ranging from the spectrum of sunlight to the invention of the reflecting telescope. It also includes the first workable theory of the rainbow and the first colour circle in the history of colour theory. Newton also discusses various other subjects such as metabolism, blood circulation and a study of the haunting experiences of the mentally ill.

One of the major impacts of Opticks was that it overthrew the idea that ‘pure’ light (such as sunlight) is white or colourless, and it becomes coloured by mixing with darkness caused by interactions with matter. Newton showed that this assumption from the time of Aristotle and Theophrastus was wrong.

Newton also illustrated that colour is a result of the physical property of light, as each hue is refracted at a characteristic angle by a prism or lens. He also added that colour is a sensation within the mind and not an inherent property of material objects or of light itself. Considering the impact of the book on science, it is astonishing to think that it was initially published anonymously with just the initials I.N. at the end of an advertisement at the front of the book.

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How long do footprints last on the Moon?

Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin (Buzz) Aldrin were the first humans to step foot on the Moon on July 20, 1969, and naturally, they left behind their footprints.

But do these still exist? Yes, they do!

How long will they last?

The first footprints, rather, all the footprints left on the Moon between 1969 and 1972, when the last human mission to the Moon happened, will still be there.

They might actually be there for years and years together, and if we are lucky, probably as long as the Moon lasts.

Why?

This is because unlike Earth, there is no erosion by water or wind on the Moon as it has no atmosphere and all the water on its surface is frozen. Also, there is no volcanic activity on the Moon which can change the lunar features. So, nothing really gets washed away from the Moon’s surface.

It may or may not last forever

The reason there is no guarantee that the footprints will remain permanently on the Moon is because of meteorites and solar wind.

Like the planets and other objects in the solar system, the Moon too is prone to bombardment by meteorites. Even one little space rock that lands anywhere near any of the footprints can wipe them off.

Due to the lack of atmosphere on the Moon, it is exposed to solar wind, which is a stream of charged particles coming from the Sun. Over time, this solar wind can act like the weather on Earth and scour the surface of the Moon, wiping away all footprints.

The good news though is that this process is very, very slow. So, footprints on the Moon are likely to remain there for a really long time.

 

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What are auroras on the sun?

For those living near the North or South Pole, the night sky can often put on a show, dubbed the aurora. The lights are called aurora borealis or northern lights near the North Pole, while it is called aurora australis or southern lights near the South Pole.

Irrespective of where it occurs, it is quite a sight to behold. And even though the spectacle is best seen in the night, it is actually caused by the sun.

When the sun burps…

Along with heat and light, sun sends a lot of energy and small particles as well. While the Earth’s magnetic field is adept at shielding us from these most times, there are occasions when the energy and small particles can travel into the Earth’s atmosphere, especially near the poles.

One of those occasions occurs during a coronal mass ejection, a type of a solar storm. The sun can be said to burp a huge bubble of electrified gas that has ability to move at high speeds through space. Some of the energy and solar particles from this can make their way to the Earth’s atmosphere near the poles.

Not just on Earth

Once in the Earth’s atmosphere, the particles can then interact with the gases available. It is this interaction that results in the brilliant displays in the night sky. Green (like in the picture here) and red lights are given off by oxygen, while interaction with nitrogen leads to a bluish or purple glow.

Auroras are not limited to just Earth. If a planet possesses an atmosphere and magnetic field, then the chances of auroras open up. In fact, we have observed splendid auroras both on Jupiter and Saturn. 

 

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Why are insects indispensable?

Scientists have sounded alarm over the rapid decline in insect population. In a series of papers published in the latest Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, scientists have pointed out how human activities are posing multi-dimensional risks to the insect population. The threats include deforestation, climate change, invasive species, pesticide use, habitat loss, pollution, forest fire, urbanisation and light pollution. On an average, the decline in insect abundance is estimated to be around 1-2% per year or 10-20% per decade. These losses are seen in all continents.

Why is this a cause for concern?

Insects are useful to humankind and the environment in a number of ways. They pollinate crops we rely on for food, keep pests in check, and recycle nutrients in the soil. They have been doing many other vital ecological processes for millions of years that it would be hard to imagine a world without them. In this Eco-logical, let’s take a look at some of these beneficial insects.

Bees

Bees pollinate a third of everything we consume. These include crops, fruits, vegetables, nuts, coffee, tea, and plants such as sunflowers that are turned into oil. Crops grown as fodder for livestock are pollinated by bees. Bees play a crucial role in sustaining biodiversity. Many flowering plants depend on bees for pollination. Without bees, even birds and animals that depend on plants for food will suffer.

Honeybees, a bee species, have the distinction of being the only insect that produces a food consumed by humans. Humans also use beewax, secreted by the insects to build the honeycombs, to make candles and lubricants.

Ladybugs

Ladybugs help humans by keeping a check on pests that destroy crops. Ladybugs have a voracious appetite. They consume plant-eating insects such as aphids, spider mites and mealybugs and in doing so they help protect crops.

Ladybugs lay hundreds of eggs in the colonies of pests, and when the eggs hatch, the larvae begin to feed on the pest insects. Farmers use ladybugs for biological pest managements. This way, the bugs help reduce the use of harmful pesticides.

Praying mantises, green lacewings and dragonflies too help humans in a similar fashion. These insect eat moths, mosquitoes, roaches, flies and many other insects considered pests by humans.

Dung beetles

Have you seen a dung beetle? They have a dark, round body with hard, protective covers and they are mighty recyclers. As the name suggests, their diet is dung – yes, animal and human faeces. They actually feed on the food that pass through an animal’s body undigested. While larvae eat the solid poop, the adult beetles generally suck up the nutritious moisture from the dung. They store their food underground. By burying the dung, the beetles loosen and nourish the soil and help control fly populations. If not for such decomposers, the world would be a barren, smelly landscape filled with flies.

Other decomposer insects such as carrion beetle play a significant role of eliminating dead or rotten bodies of plant or animals from the environment by feeding on them. Some of the other carrion feeders include ants, mites, wasps and fly larvae (maggots).

Butterflies and moths

Besides being a vital element of the food chain- as pollinators and as prey for birds, bats and other insectivorous animals – butterflies and moths are important to humans for their aesthetic value. Butterflies are among the most appealing creatures in Nature, with colours and ornate patterns that are enjoyed by humans. They inspire art and literature. In some cultures, butterflies are portrayed as symbols of souls, freedom, love and peace. Other insects groups represented in art include bees, beetles, grasshoppers, and dragonflies.

Insect as food

Many species of insects are known worldwide to be part of human diet. Some important groups include grasshoppers, caterpillars, beetle grubs, winged termites, bees, worms, ant brood, cicadas, and a variety of aquatic insects. Scientific research has shown that edible insects are a very rich source of protein and other nutrients. Eating insects can, in fact, help fight hunger and food insecurity.

 

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