Category Information Technology

What is Creative Destruction?

 

The eighties and nineties were the era of VHS tapes. Invented by the Japanese company JVC, Video Home System (VHS) – or the ‘deck’ as it was locally known – was an instant hit around the world. Even in small towns of India, video shops that rented VHS players and cassettes were a lucrative business.

The era, however, did not last long. Along came the Compact Discs. Music, movies, data files – the flashy CDs could store anything. They could be played on TVs (hooked with CD players) and computers. Today, whatever CDs are left behind are used as reflectors on bicycles or for art-from-waste projects.

Streaming and cloud storage have made the CD obsolete, just like its predecessor. Tomorrow, the streaming system could be replaced with something else. This process of evolution of technology – from VHS tapes to streaming platforms or landline phones to smartphones – is called Creative Destruction.

The technological advancements defined above are recent, but the concept of creative destruction has been defined and debated by economists, sociologists, and political thinkers since the 19th century. The industrial revolution and colonialism were the two defining historical events that shaped its definition.

Foundational theories

 Creative Destruction is a critical component of the capitalist system of economics and politics.Yet, a first clear definition for the  process was given by the father of communism –an opposing economic and political throught Karl Marsx. Though he did not use the term Creative Destruction, he defined the concept as a ‘’contant upheaval and change within the capitalist system.’’

In his exhaustive work tirled, ‘capital; Acriyique of Political Economy; published as three volumes in 1867, 1885, and 1894. Marx writes: “The bourgeoisie cannot exist without constantly revolutionizing the instruments of production, and thereby the relations of production, and with them the whole relations of society.”

This encapsulates the process of technological innovations that we see today. Take for instance the case of Artificial Intelligence (AI). It is the new “instrument of production that is replacing older technologies and even humans in some cases. As a result, the “relations of production also changes, with new skills becoming essential for upward mobility in the job market. The “relations of society” has also changed as engineers with Al skills now draw higher pay packages compared to engineers in other sectors.

Much later, in the 20th Century, German economist Joseph Schumpeter popularized the term Creative Destruction, which was coined by another.

German economist Werner Sombart. In his book Capitalism, Socialism and Democraay, published in 1942. Schumpeter extrapolates the Marxist thought to describe the destructive process of a transformation caused by innovation for instance, the slow death of landline phones.

Schumpeter says Capitalism is a method of economic change which can never be stationary. The fundamental impulse that keeps the system running is new consumer goods, new methods of producing or transporting them, new markets to sell them, and new forms of organisations that the system creates. This is a fairly accurate description of how businesses work in our world today.

Modem examples

Schumpeters work is pretty accurate in defining the current startup era. He says innovative entry by entrepreneurs is the disruptive force that sustains economic growth, even as it destroys the value of established companies that enjoyed some degree of monopoly. A classic example for this is the case of social media eating into the market control of mainstream medin

However, Schumpeter was pessimistic about the sustainability of this process. Seeing it as leading eventually to the undermining of capitalism’s own institutional frameworks. The capitalist process in much the same way in which it destroyed the institutional framework of feudal society abo undermines its own, he said.

Today, most technology majors are focussed on continuous innovations that push boundaries of human imagination. As we grapple to get a grasp over the everevolving trends in technology, its important to leam about the great minds that prophesied this era.

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How does the internet connect across continents?

It connects through a vast undersea network of fibre optic cables across countries and continents.

 Fibre optic cables lie submerged on the ocean floor across the Earth. These cables allow us to quickly send our emails and videos, and connect our browsers to places in far-away lands.

To put it simply, when we open an Australian website in Mumbai our PC sends a signal through the submarine cable to the web server that is hosting that website and then receives the data of the website in return over the same cable.

Earlier communication satellites were used to transmit data, but since optical fibres are capable of transmitting large volumes of data at a much faster speed, submarine cables have come to be used instead in most cases. Submarine cables now account for more than 99 per cent of all international communications.

The first submarine communications cables were laid in the 1850s to send telegraphs. Modern cables use optical fibre technology to carry digital data. There is a massive network of submarine fibre optic cables that connects a large portion of the continents except Antarctica.

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What is Aadhaar Mitra?

The Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI), which is responsible for issuing the Aadhaar card to residents of the country, recently launched a new AI/ML-based chatbot called Aadhaar Mitra. What’s the chatbot for and how can we access it? Come, let’s find out

Aadhaar is a unique identification system that assigns a 12-digit number to residents of the country after due verification. The system is used to authenticate identity and provide access to government services such as PDS, LPG, etc., subsidies, and benefits. Though Aadhaar was introduced way back in 2010, many still struggle to enrol in the system or update their information. This is where Aadhaar Mitra comes in.

Where can you find it?

Aadhaar Mitra is a chatbot that uses machine learning and artificial intelligence technology to provide personalised assistance to users. The chatbot is designed to be user-friendly.

The Aadhaar Mitra feature is available on the home page of the UIDAI’s website. Once you click on the flickering blue “Aadhaar Mitra” icon at the bottom right comer, it will ask you to “Get started”. Then, enter your query related to the Aadhaar system in the text field and click on the ‘Send’ button and the chatbot will throw up the required answer.

Available at all times

Aadhaar Mitra can provide a wide range of answers on Aadhaar related topics. The chatbot makes the process of checking your Aadhaar enrolment/update status easier. You can get information about a nearby Aadhaar enrolment centre by entering the pin code of your location.

The chatbot helps track Aadhaar PVC card (latest version of the card which is made of polyvinyl chloride in the size of a debit card) status and even tells users what should be done when an Aadhaar card is lost. It also tells you how to download an e-aadhaar from the UIDAI website through a video.

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How do cell phones work?

Also do you know why mobile phones are called cellular phones? Read on to find out…

A cellular phone is similar to a radio. However cell phones allow you to speak and listen at the same time because two separate frequencies are used to transmit and receive signals.

Cellular phones are also similar to cordless phones, which use a pair of frequencies for communication between the base unit and the handset. In the case of cellular phones, the base unit is located a much greater distance away from the mobile phone and is also capable of handling communications with several mobile units at a time.

Within a city, the phone company divides the area into small units called cells. It is for this reason that mobile phones are called cellular phones. In each cell, a tower is installed which has a radio transmitter and receiver, which is capable of communicating with several phones at a time. Each of these cells has a radius of about a couple of kilometres.

When one starts a telephone conversation, the mobile unit will communicate with the base unit in the cell that is nearest. This is similar to the operation of a cordless phone. If you are close to the base unit within a cell, the signal strength will be sufficient to carry on a conversation comfortably. However as one moves away from the base unit, the signal strength will reduce. The base unit senses this reduction in signal strength. Simultaneously, the adjoining cell detects that the signal strength from your phone is increasing and therefore you are moving closer to it. When the signal to the second cell becomes greater than that from the first cell, the conversation automatically switches to the second cell.

In addition every cell phone company will have one central office, which handles communication between the cell phones and ordinary landlines.

For good communication over an entire city, it is important to have a large number of cells, which overlap slightly. This will ensure that there is coverage at all points of the city and also that the communication is uniform. A larger number of cells allow the use of lower power transmitters, and results in less interference.

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What is the use of Ribo device?

The ‘Ribo’ is a robotic solution for those looking to enjoy a bit of digital companionship. It “embraces” your smartphone and displays expressions that seem to convey your smartphone’s feelings while separated from your hands. Half desktop pet and half smartphone dock, Ribo expresses emotions through its eyes displayed on a circular screen that serves as its face. The “tummy” of the robot is where you can slot your smartphone in. Inserting a charging cable turns Ribo into a charging station when needed. If you hold both of its hands in yours, it can take ECG readings that will be displayed on your phone and on its LCD display. Compared to smart docks with wireless charging and advanced features, Ribo might seem lacking, but what it offers is a more personal and approachable connection with technology.

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How does Google Maps work?

You might have used or seen your parents use Google Maps while travelling around the city. Have you ever wondered how it works? Find out…

Google Maps has revolutionised travel like never before. Travellers can chalk out their itineraries and find addresses at the dick of a button with the help of this free map service. You can virtually view the street your cousin lives on in the U.S. without even moving an inch from your seat!

Google bases its maps on information taken from a selection of databases. But the most crucial data is provided by the satellite images of cities, which is captured and converted into small image files. The data is then verified with a vast database of map references like longitude and latitude co-ordinates, addresses and postal codes.

When you type an address in the search field, Google sends the query to its global servers and searches for the closest location match. The search results in the corresponding map of the location being displayed on screen, When you ask for directions from Location A to B. Google sorts out the information in its map servers, which store millions of potential route combinations to find the fastest route between the two locations. This kind of system which deals with information related to location is called Geographical Geographical Information System (GIS).

Google Maps first started as a software application developed by the Danish-born Rasmussen brothers Lars and Jens for a company that was later acquired by Google.

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What is Metaverse?

The latest buzzword in internet circles is ‘Metaverse’! It is making headlines, especially with Facebook even rebranding itself as Meta! It is expected to create a major impact in the digital world.

What is Metaverse?

Put simply, the metaverse is a 3D (three-dimensional) version of the internet. It can be considered a place parallel to the physical world, where you spend your digital life. In the metaverse, you and others in it will have an avatar. You will interact with each other through avatars. It is a shared virtual space, which is interactive and has an immersive experience.

Let’s look at some examples. You may have used the metaverse in some form or the other while playing video games. A basic form of the metaverse has been adopted in the online shooter game Fortnite, where gamers have their own personal avatars to engage with the avatars of other players.

In the stimulation video game Second Life, users experience virtual reality in which their avatars can do everything they can in real life, including eating, sleeping, shopping, etc.

The term ‘metaverse’, first cropped up in the science fiction novel “Snow Crash” by Neal Stephenson in 1992. In the book, the author referred to the metaverse as an all-encompassing digital world that exists parallel to the real world.

Tools needed

You will need a VR (Virtual Reality) headset, a controller and a powerful laptop to enter the metaverse. You will also need digital currency to live in the metaverse.

Future impact

The metaverse will make gaming more realistic and increase the user’s immersive experience. Travelling around the world without leaving your room will become possible. Healthcare and education are expected to gain the most from the metaverse. The metaverse has the potential to radically transform the digital and global economy.

Currently, there is no single metaverse but there are many. All of them are, however, still under development.

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How can you hide your profile photo from specific contacts on WhatsApp?

If any of your WhatsApp contacts ask unnecessary questions, pass comments or misuse your profile photo, you can now hide it from them. First, make sure WhatsApp is updated on your phone (check the App Store or Google Play Store) or you won’t see the new privacy settings. Go to Settings> Account > Privacy>Profile Photo. Choose ‘My contacts except… Select the contacts from whom you want to hide your profile photo and tap on done/check mark. This takes you to the previous menu, where you can see how many contacts you’ve excluded. These contacts won’t be able to see your current or upcoming profile photos either. (You can also hide Last Seen, Status and About info from specific contacts the same way.)

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WHAT IS MORAVEC’S PARADOX?

Artificial intelligence can simplify complicated tasks but it may still be unable to do what humans do instinctively.

It is a concept in computing put forward by Austrian artificial intelligence (AI) researcher Hans Moravec in the 1980s. He theorised that while it is easy to make computers do highly intelligent tasks such as calculating complicated mathematical equations, it is very difficult to make them do simple tasks such as walking. According to Moravec, humans have evolved over millions of years. to perfect simple physical tasks such as walking and running. Such tasks, which we take for granted, are a result of the process of natural selection.

Moravec’s paradox states that it is difficult to build a machine that has the skills of a one-year-old child with the instinctive ability to move around, recognise faces, and avoid danger. It takes a lot of difficult computations to instruct a computer to do what a human being can do without thinking twice. On the other hand, humans acquired sophisticated skills such as abstract reasoning and logical thinking that result in excellence in the fields of engineering, mathematics and art, about hundred thousand years ago. It is easy to devise algorithms for these skills for computers. That is why it is easy to build a computer that can defeat a professional chess player or play music.

Moravec’s paradox can be interpreted in different ways. Some scholars believe that it means that Al can render people with high-level jobs such as stock analysis or engineering unemployed, while the jobs of cooks and gardeners are safe. Others take it to mean that Al will always need human supervision.

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WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE SURFACE WEB AND THE DEEP WEB?

The Surface Web contains less than 10% of the info that is on the Internet.

The Deep Web consists of websites and content that are not searchable by standard search engines such as Google If Google can find the content you are searching for, then its on the Surface Web! The Surface Web contains less than 10 per cent of the information that is on the Internet.

Most people are unaware that the Deep Webs contains benign sites. Examples are your password-protected email and bank account certain sections of paid subscription services like Netflix and sites that can be accessed only through an online form. The Deep Web is estimated to be many many times larger than the Surface Web.

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Which is the first computer virus?

The Creeper program is regarded as the first virus. The idea of a computer virus- a metaphor derived from biological viruses for a computer program that when executed, replicates itself to affect machines-was discussed in a series of lectures in the late 1940s by mathematician John von Neumann.

The Creeper program created by Bob Thomas of BBN in 1971 is often regarded as the first vinus Designed as a security test, it was an attempt to see if self-replicating programs were possible. It had no malicious intent and simply displayed the message: TM THE CREEPER. CATCH ME IF YOU CAN Viruses have come a long way in half a century and are no longer a laughing matter.

Estimates suggest that 3.50,000 new pieces of malware are discovered every single day in a world that is more connected than ever before, the damaging costs of these are also spiraling out of control with conservative estimates placing a figure of $55 billion in annual costs.

An experimental computer network, ARPANET, was created in 1969 and was the precursor to the internet. It was designed to send communications from computer to computer over long distances, without the need for a dedicated phone connection between each computer. To achieve this required a method of dividing and sending data that is now known as packet switching. It’s few early users were mostly computer scientists. Imagine theirsurprise when one day in 1971, connected teletype computer screens displayed the phrase: “I’m the creeper, catch me if you can!” Although they didn’t know it at the time, they were the first computer virus victims. But what did the mysterious message mean, and who sent it? It turns out it wasn’t a hacker who coded the first computer virus, and it wasn’t sent with malicious intent. Bold, Beranek, and Newman* (now Raytheon BBN Technologies) were pioneers in packet switching networks like ARPANET and the internet. One of its researchers, Bob Thomas, had created Creeper as an experimental computer program.

Creeper was a worm — a type of computer virus that replicates itself and spreads to other systems. In this case, its targets were Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) computers which were linked to ARPANET. But it wasn’t malware like we associate with today’s computer viruses; displaying its enigmatic message was all Creeper did. It didn’t encrypt files, demand a ransom, destroy data, steal Social Security numbers, or render centrifuges inoperable. It only displayed its taunting challenge.

Credit : Exabeam

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What are Google Tasks?

Create lists of to-do items and check them off once completed with Google’s new to-do app. Tasks syncs across devices and integrates into the desktop version of Gmail and Google Calendar. You can add additional information like a description, date and sub tasks to your tasks, and create separate lists that you can switch between. In the new re-designed desktop Gmail, tasks are located to the right of your screen, so you don’t have to open the app on your smartphone if you’re at your computer. Drag emails from your inbox into the Tasks panel to automatically create new tasks around them. Free for iOS and Android. Aside from its simplicity, Google Tasks’ best feature is its deep integration with Gmail. Your inbox isn’t the best to-do list—so Google Tasks gives you somewhere to list those important messages that need a reply or action on your part. Drag an email from anywhere in Gmail to the Google Tasks sidebar to instantly turn it into a task. It’ll keep the email’s subject as the task name, with a link to the email underneath. You can then archive or move the message and still open it easily from the Google Tasks link.

Much like a paper to-do list, the most direct way to use Google Tasks is to jot down basic things you need to do and check them off as they’re completed. But if you’d rather plan, rearranging your tasks into the order you should complete them, you can do that too. Just click on a task and drag it to the order you want. Move a task with subtasks? Just drag to move the whole set together. Or, if you decide a subtask should be its own task, drag it out, and it’ll turn into a standalone task.

Credit : Zapier

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What are the ways to stay safe online?

Do you spend a lot of time online? How can you stay safe in cyber space? Here are some simple tips to shield yourself from dangers.

When you download a game. you look for something that keeps you engaged. You possibly use it as a stress buster or to lift up your spirits. But imagine a game that draws you in such a way that you end up in a darker place, quite possibly a point of no return. That’s not all. Many children and teens are easy prey for online predators because they are wired to take on more risks, without considering the consequences. Here are some simple tips to guide you in cyber space.

Be alert to strangers

Do not let your guard down and allow the wrong people into your online circle. A false sense of security sets in on social networks and services where safety is an assumption. But remember do not interact with any unknown people. Anyone can create an online profile, so it’s best to be alert. You can turn down friend requests from strangers.

Set strong passwords and do not share them

Your password must consist of at least eight characters, which are a combination of letters, numbers, and symbols. Do not share your social media passwords with friends or acquaintances, no matter what situation arises. You may share it with your parents.

Mails, messages from unknown senders are best unread

One of the terrifying things about the Blue Whale is that it finds you, even if you do not. The best way to be safe is to not open any mails or messages from unknown people.

Do not respond to invitations sent by them.

Keep your account private on photo sharing sites

We tend to let our guard down on photo or video sharing sites such as Instagram, Snapchat and others. But the media uploaded on such sites inadvertently gives out a lot of personal information. Ensure that your account is private on this site, so that people would need to request your permission before following your stream.

Avoid open chat rooms

These places are filled with landmines and should be avoided like the plague. In a chat room, unknown people can strike up a conversation with you through private messages. What’s worse you never know if they are telling the truth about their identity. If you must, then log in using privacy settings.

Anonymous?

There are applications that allow users to send  anonymous messages to people. Recipient cannot respond to the messages. Although people usually use it to show their appreciation to writers or colleagues, it can be equally  harmful if fallen in the wrong hands.

Here’s how you can be cyber smart:

If someone on the internet asks you to meet in person-even if they are the same age- say no and inform a teacher or an adult whom you trust.

Passwords should be hard to crack. Avoid using obvious dictionary words. You can use online password generators, which jumble up characters and numbers. Change it often.

Your online posts should not reveal any personal information. This includes your moods, habits, locations, or information on your friends.

Do not participate in online surveys or contests requiring your personal information. It is illegal for companies to ask for any information from children under 13 years of age, without the consent of your parents.

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WHY DO COMPANIES ADVERTISE?

Companies use all forms of media to advertise their products and services. advertising began simply as a way of telling people about a product, but it is now much more sophisticated. It is used to present the image of a company in a certain way and also to target a particular audience that the company feels it can attract. In this way, the company associates itself with a certain lifestyle. Advertising is a huge business, with large companies investing huge sums of money in anything from sports sponsorship to putting their logo on the side of a milk carton.

Companies use advertisements as part of a marketing program to increase sales of their products and services. Advertising plays a different role at different stages of the marketing process — helping to raise awareness of a product or service, generating leads for a sales force or selling directly. Companies with retail outlets use advertising to make consumers aware of product availability and increase sales through the outlets.

Awareness

Companies use advertising to make customers and prospects aware of the features and benefits of their products. If customers are not aware of your product, they will not consider it when they next make a purchasing decision for the type of product you offer. Advertising puts your product into the consumer’s set of choices.

Brand Preference

Advertising can build a preference for your product over competitors’ offerings. Your advertising messages must reflect the information that customers feel is important when choosing a product. It must also stress the quality of your product. By advertising regularly, you can reinforce the brand messages so that your product becomes first choice when the consumer next makes a purchase.

Direct Sales

Use direct response advertising to sell products directly to customers. The advertisement includes details of the product and its price together with a telephone number or website address where customers can order the product.

Retail Development

Advertising details of retailers or distributors that stock your products builds sales by driving traffic to the outlets. The advertisements can provide information on retail outlets or promote special offers available at those outlets. This type of advertising can also help you promote your products to distributors and retailers.

Lead Generation

If you market products and services through a sales force, you can use advertisements to generate leads for the team to follow up. Include a response mechanism in the advertisement such as a reply coupon, telephone number or email address so that customers can register their details in return for an incentive offer. Examples of incentives include free copies of special reports for business customers or gifts for consumers.

Reputation

When a prospect is selecting a supplier for a major purchase, company reputation is an important factor in the decision. Use advertising to build a positive perception of your company. Reputation or corporate advertising communicates messages about factors such as your company’s achievements, financial stability, market success and innovation record.

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WHAT IS MASS MEDIA?

Certain forms of media, particularly television and newspapers, are able to communicate to thousands or even millions of people at the same time. These mass media can have a very powerful influence on their audience, and often reflect the particular view-point of the media-owner.

Think about this for a second: whenever you want to hear your favorite song, watch your favorite show, or see the latest current events, where do you go? You more than likely turn on your television, radio, or computer. The source that the majority of the general public uses to get their news and information from is considered mass media.

Mass media means technology that is intended to reach a mass audience. It is the primary means of communication used to reach the vast majority of the general public. The most common platforms for mass media are newspapers, magazines, radio, television, and the Internet. The general public typically relies on the mass media to provide information regarding political issues, social issues, entertainment, and news in pop culture.

The mass media has evolved significantly over time. Have you ever wondered how the latest news and information was communicated in the past? Well, before there was the Internet, television, or the radio, there was the newspaper. The newspaper was the original platform for mass media. For a long period of time, the public relied on writers and journalists for the local newspapers to provide them with the latest news in current events.

Centuries later, in the 1890s, came the invention of the radio. The radio would soon supersede the newspaper as the most pertinent source for mass media. Families would gather around the radio and listen to their favorite radio station programs to hear the latest news regarding politics, social issues, and entertainment.

Later on down the line came the invention of the television. The television would soon replace the radio for the most effective platform to reach the general public. Today, the Internet is the most relevant form of mass media and has become a major tool for news outlets. Since the evolution of the Internet, the general public is now able to access those same news outlets in an instant with just a click of a mouse, instead of having to wait for scheduled programs.

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HOW IS INFORMATION SENT AROUND THE WORLD?

In the modem world, we can access information in ways that could only be dreamt about just 50 years ago. Information can travel around the world via television, radio, telephone and computer networks, all of them connected by satellite or cable links. Modern communication systems, or media, allow almost anyone to transmit and receive verbal, visual and written information wherever they are in the world.

Optical communications networks provide the underlying high-capacity, ubiquitous connectivity that underpins the global Internet Characterizes the growth of communication and computing between 1986 and 2007, based on a broad collection of data. Around the year 2000, Internet traffic took over from voice telephone as the single largest communication format for information. Now Internet traffic dominates completely. All of the long-distance communications on the Internet are over optical fiber.

Major advances in transmission techniques and technologies have allowed network providers to provide extremely cost-effective network upgrades that have kept pace with the extraordinary appetite for broadband Internet services. That growth, as exemplified in has driven network bandwidth demands by a factor of 100 over the last 10 years. That increase has been enabled by realizing the full potential of wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) that has resulted in fibers carrying as many as 100 separate wavelengths. In addition, the capacity per wavelength in commercially deployed terrestrial networks has increased from a maximum of 10 gigabits per second (Gb/s) per wavelength when the first edition of Harnessing Light was published in 1998, to 100 Gb/s today. As a result, per fiber transmission capacities in terrestrial systems today as high as 5-10 terabits per second (Tb/s) are possible. Transoceanic capacities have lagged somewhat behind terrestrial values because the long amplifier-only distances and the desire to extend the amplifier spacing have made upgrading to per wavelength capacities above 10 Gb/s problematic. Nevertheless, transoceanic per fiber capacities of approximately 1 Tb/s are typical. For the future there are expectations that this growth will continue as more video content calls for bandwidth and that there is a need for another factor-of-100 growth in the coming 10 years as well.

Major advances have also been achieved in both cost-effectively managing the large capacity in today’s WDM optical networks and in leveraging the value proposition of optical amplifiers to provide multi-wavelength amplification over network mesh and ring architectures. Reconfigurable, wavelength-routed networks—in which wavelength-defined units of capacity can be added, dropped, or switched from one fiber route to another fiber route directly in the optical domain without the need for conversion to electronics—are now heavily deployed in long-haul terrestrial networks as well as metropolitan networks. Wavelength-routed networks provide cost-effective solutions because they allow data on wavelengths passing through a node at a multi-route network node to remain in the optical domain and benefit from the cost-effective multi-wavelength amplification enabled by optical amplifiers, rather than needing to be individually electronically regenerated. The large increase in capacity demand has ensured that a prerequisite for the economic viability of such networks—namely, that the capacity demand between any two node pairs on the network be at least as large as that which can be carried by a single wavelength—is met.

WDM optical networks require reconfigurable optical add/drop multiplexers (ROADMs) to, under network electrical control, drop or add wavelength channels at a node and to switch wavelength channels from one fiber route to another. ROADMs are key enablers that have evolved significantly in their functionality, providing increasing levels of flexibility, and in their capacity, or number of fiber ports and wavelengths per fiber, over the last decade. Further progress in these network elements and their enabling technologies will be essential to addressing the growing demand for capacity.

Ultimately, networks are no better than the access capacity that they provide to the end user, whether that customer is a business or a residence. Increasingly that access is through an optical link. The last decade has seen significant increase in the deployment of fiber in the access network, initially to the curb, but increasingly also directly to the business or home.

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The Right IT

 

Should I go for IT through IIT?

You have not mentioned whether you have maths along with biology. To be eligible for the IIT you need to have PCM (physics, chemistry and maths) at the 10+2 level. IIT Mumbai, IIT Delhi, IIT Chennai, IIT Kanpur and IIT Kharagpur all have B. Tech / B.E. courses in information technology (IT). Biology students need not lose heart as they can choose from the diploma stream by joining any of the reputed computer training institutes. The IIITs are again for students with a PCM background. The IIITs at Allahabad, Gwalior, Hyderabad and Kolkata have been set up by the government to produce trained IT professionals. They conduct the following IT programmes: Four-year B. Tech. programme by IIIT, Allahabad; four-year B. Tech. programme and five-year integrated M. Tech. At IIIT, Hyderabad; five- year integrated post-graduate programme in information technology and management at the Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management, Gwalior; and a four-year B.E. course in software technology and a B. Tech. Course in information technology at IIIT Kolkata. Admission to all the four institutes is done on the basis of objective-type entrancetests.

 

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What is a Robot?

          A robot is an automatic machine which can work like a human being. It can replace man in various branches of scientific and industrial tasks because it does not suffer from human limitations. It may or may not resemble a human being but definitely can work like a human being. The robots which resemble humans are called androids.

          The word ‘robot’ was first used in the play ‘Rossum’s Universal Robots’ by the Czechoslovak dramatist, Karel Capek, who had derived it from a Czech, word ‘Robota’ which means a forced or bonded labourer.

          The industrial revolution and automations stimulated the invention of robotic devices to perform certain human tasks. A human worker, however superb a craftsman he may be has certain limitations. He cannot work continuously in a hostile environment. He cannot work for long periods because he gets tired. He may be in short supply and may be expensive to hire. Modern industrial robotic devices aim to substitute a machine for man in hostile environments, cut costs by replacing expensive hand labour with cheap dependable machines, and provide versatile, all purpose robots or mechanical devices at predictable costs. Robot is such a machine which does not get tired, does not go on strike and does not demand increase in salary. 

          Robots can perform a variety of jobs such as welding and painting a car, house cleaning, cutting the grass of a lawn, working in nuclear plants or travelling to space. They can also play chess, work as a watchman, cut the wool of a sheep and pluck fruits from trees.

          Robots of higher level are capable of adapting to changes in environment. They are also capable of making decisions with the help of computers. A more complex robotive device in modern transportation is the automatic aircraft pilot which can control routine flights. An android robot named Shaky Robot was developed at Stanford Research Institute in California to do a variety of research jobs.

          Japan has the largest number of robots in the world. The United States of America, Britain, Germany, Sweden, Italy, Poland, France, India, etc are also using robotic devices for different purposes. All robotic devices are controlled by computers.

 

What is a Silicon Chip?

          The microchip or silicon chip has completely changed the colour of the electronic world by providing a new direction to it. It has led to the invention of electronic calculators, personal computers, digital watches, microwave ovens etc.

          The silicon chips are tiny crystals of silicon which contain large number of electronic components. Silicon is the most abundant element on earth as the crust of the earth is largely made of silicon. But silicon is not found in a free state as it is always combined with one or more additional elements. In one sq. cm. chip, about one million electronic components can be squeezed. The size of a chip is smaller than our finger tips. They can be made to carry very small electrical circuits, called microcircuits. These are used in transistor radios, digital watches, calculators and computers. They can be used in small electronic devices as the chips are very small.

          But how is silicon chips made? Silicon chips are made from a single crystal of silicon. Thin wafers of about 0.5 mm thick are sliced from a single crystal. One side of each wafer is first polished and then oxidized in a furnace: The disc is covered with a layer of photo resist material and then exposed to ultraviolet light through the clear sections of a mask. A light sensitive coating is developed and the exposed areas are dissolved away by the solvent. Unexposed areas are not affected so a pattern remains identical to the mask. The exposed areas are etched in hydrofluoric acid. Another solvent removes the resist. In a furnace, the wafer is exposed to chemicals which penetrate the silicon through the oxide gap to make transistors. The process is repeated several times. The wafer is coated with aluminium and a final layer of metals connects the components together. After careful inspection, chips are selected and released for use.

          Nowadays microchips are being used in electronic sewing machines, washing machines, word processors, and so on. 

Why is it said that Orkut was a milestone invention?

          As we know, Orkut was perhaps the first social networking website developed on a grand scale at a time when the world did not have enough advanced tools for communication.

          The service greatly helped people connect with others, with lost friends, with kith and kin staying far away, not just by chatting, but by sharing photos too.

          It was also a platform that enabled setting up of online ‘profiles’ that are very common today. In 2009, when the site was redesigned, it came out as faster, simpler, and more customizable. It also included video chat, promotions and easy navigation.

           Orkut was very popular in Asian countries as well as in others including Brazil. By 2014, Orkut met with strong competition from its successor sites including Facebook, YouTube, and Google+. On September 30th of the same year, it was officially shut down.

           However, Orkut remains a milestone in the history of IT for its contributions, and for being the idea behind the later social media services. 

What is WikiLeaks?

       WikiLeaks is a non-profit media organization founded by journalist Julian Assange on October 4th, 2006. It is known for publishing secret information, news leaks, and classified media from anonymous sources across the world.

       Founder Assange is the director and editor-in-chief of WikiLeaks. In his words, the site is a giant library of the world’s most persecuted documents. Initiated in Iceland, the site claimed a database of more than 1.2 million documents within a year of its launch. It is funded largely by volunteers, and is dependent on public donations too.

       In April 2010, WikiLeaks published the Collateral Murder video which showed the killings of many Iraqis. The following year, it released secret files about prisoners detained in the US military’s Guantanamo Bay detention camp.

       Julian Assange has received threats, as well as support from all over the world.