Category History

Is Switzerland known for chocolate or cheese?

From soaring Alps to beautiful lakes, Switzerland has breathtaking scenery. The country has for centuries been a neutral state and is one of the world’s wealthiest countries. Let us find out more about this beautiful country in Europe.

History

The earliest stones discovered in Switzerland are more than 250,000 years old. During the last glacial period in Alpine Europe, the Wurm stage, which began around 70,000 years ago, the region was covered with ice. At about 12,000 BC. Homo sapiens appeared after the melting of the glaciers, Neolithic cultures established com growing and animal breeding in parts of the Rhone and Rhine valleys.

The region that constitutes present-day Switzerland became part of the Roman Empire at the beginning of the 3rd Century BC With the end of the Western Roman Empire. the Roman administration in the region dismantled in the 5th and 6th centuries. In the Middle Ages, the region witnessed migratory flows. Various peoples also settled in Switzerland, bringing with them new ways of life and languages

Switzerland was formed in 1291 and became an independent country in 1815. Though the country faced tensions and armed conflicts like the rest of Europe, it developed its unique characteristic of being neutral in wars. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the country experienced periods of peace and rising prosperity.

Geography

Switzerland is a landlocked country bordered by France, Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein and Italy. It is the nexus of the diverse physical and cultural geography of Western Europe.

It has deep Alpine lakes and grassy valleys with farms and small villages. Among the snow-covered Swiss Alps, Matterhorn is the most famous peak. The highest among them is Dufourspitze at 15,203 feet.

In the past several decades. the country has faced severe environmental stress, resulting in pollution and debates over the exploitation of natural resources. During the 1970s and 1980s. environmental policies were adopted by the municipalities that led to an impressive progress on pollution abatement. For example, air pollution emissions here are among the lowest in industrialised countries.

Flora and fauna

In the warmer months, Switzerland is graced with a variety of flora. The most beautiful blooms can be found high in the mountains.

The vegetation here is a mix of four European climatic regions that converge in the country. It includes the beeches and oaks of the maritime west; hornbeam and larch trees in the more continental east, predominantly in the Engadin and the dry Valais; extensive spruce forests in the northern subalpine region; and chestnut groves in the south. The most famous flower in the country is the edelweiss (native to alpine areas of Europe and South America).

Though the country’s animal life is primarily Alpine, it has a mixture of species familiar to southern and north-central Europe. Here, one can find ibex, which is a species of mountain goat that was hunted to near extinction in the early 1800s. It was reintroduced and more than 15,000 ibex now live in the Swiss Alps. Besides, one can find marmots in the high meadows, and chamois. The forests of Switzerland are also home to deer, rabbits, foxes, badgers, squirrels, and many bird species.

People

Most of Western Europe’s culture has its presence in Switzerland. The Swiss constitution recognises German, French, Italian and Romansh (a Rhaeto-Romance language with Latin roots) as official languages. Though English is not an official language, most of the country’s official documents are in it.

Most of the citizens live in towns and cities. The cities are international centres of industry and commerce.

Since the beginning of the 20th Century, the population of Switzerland has more than doubled. The foreign-born population here increased in the 1990s as it provided refuge to those fleeing the violence in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Kosovo.

The country boasts an impressive list of contributors to the arts and sciences. It has won more Nobel Prizes and registered more patents per capita than any other country.

Switzerland’s neutral stance In wars and laws of political asylum have attracted many creative persons during times of unrest or war in Europe. For example, the rise of fascism in the 1930s and 1940s caused a number of German, Austrian, and Italian writers such as Thomas Mann, Stefan George, and Ignazio Silone to seek refuge in Switzerland.

Traditional Swiss cuisine is marked by important cultural and regional variations. Cheese dishes are an integral part of the country’s cuisine. Its famous and national dish is fondue neuchateloise, which is a mixture of melted Emmentaler and Gruyere cheeses and wine into which bread cubes are dipped.

The Swiss chocolate industry is also world-famous. Meanwhile, the western region of the country is influenced by French cuisine and culture, and in Ticino, pasta, polenta, and risotto from Italy are popular.

Typical Swiss folk culture such as yodeling and playing the alphorn is practised in some rural regions. Folk arts here include music, poetry (usually song), dance, wood carving, and embroidery. The traditions can be seen in the country’s many holidays and festivals. For example, Fasnacht is celebrated in late winter throughout the country. It exhibits regional variations such as in some places people wear masks to chase away evil spirits. Masks are also part of Sylvesterklause (New Year) celebrations, particularly in rural Switzerland.

The country has made a significant mark in science. The famous Swiss scientists include Paracelsus, who introduced chemistry into the field of medicine in the 16th Century. Zurich’s Federal Institute of Technology has produced many Nobel Prize winners, among them physicists Albert Einstein, Wolfgang Pauli, and Heinrich Rohrer. The Swiss are well known for their watches and clocks.

Government

The 1848 Constitution of Switzerland, modelled on the United States, was revised in 1874 and then in 2000. It does not allow for troops to be sent to serve in foreign wars. During both World Wars, the country remained neutral.

One of the unique aspects of the Constitution is that it allows citizens to have a direct say in their own affairs under Switzerland’s system of direct democracy. The citizens can also call a national vote on any issue by collecting 100,000 signatures.

The leader of the government is the President. Both the President and Vice-President are elected by the Federal Assembly from the Federal Council. They serve a one-year term and elections are usually held in December. Ruth Dreifuss was the first woman to serve as President, holding the office in 1999.

Though the country has been a member of the United Nations since 2002, it is not a member of the European Union.

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How many people are affected by the humanitarian crisis in Yemen?

You must have heard about the humanitarian crisis in Yemen The country has gone through nine years of war. An estimated 4.5 million people-14 percent of the population are currently displaced, according to the United Nations

However, this desert country holds a rich history and vibrant culture that have been influenced by the countrys strategic location at the souther entrance of the Red Sea.

History

For more than two millennia Yemen controlled the supply of important commoilities as frankincense and myrrh and dominated the traite in many other valuable items, such as the spices and armatics of Asia. Over the years, the region was ruled by three famous and large empires the Minaran, the Sabaran, and the Himyante Toallest Homertoe by the Romans) Their time of ascendancy extended from about 1200 BC to 525 AD The last Humyante king was Dhu Nuwas. The region was later ruled by the Aksumites and then Persians before the advent of Islam in 628 AD

During the 16th and 17th Centunes, Yemen and the Red Sea became the centre point of conflict between the Egyptians. the Ottomans and various European powers seeking control over the emerging market for coffee arabica and the long-standing trade in condiments and spices from the East

The country lost its importance and charm when the coffee plant was smuggled out of Yemen and transplanted in other places. With the shift in trade centres, the cities such as Aden and Mocha (once a major coffee centre) shrank to villages The present Republic of Yemen came into being in May 1990.

Geography

Yemen is bounded by the Gulf of Aden, the Arabian Sea, the Red Sea, Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Oman. It is an arid country with no permanent watercourses. There are evidences of volcanic activity that happened a few hundred years ago.

In the interiors, rugged mountains, including the Sarawat Mountains, can be found. The eastern region is part of the fifth-largest desert in the world, the Rub al-Khali (nicknamed “the Empty Quarter’). It is the longest stretch of continuous sand in the world.

Flora and fauna

 Due to its remoteness, Yemen has great natural beauty and flourishing vegetation in the highlands, unlike elsewhere on the Arabian Peninsula. The country is divided into three regions-coastal plain, middle highlands and the mountains.

In the coastal plains, dry-climate plants such as the date palm, citrus fruits, banana, and cotton as well as spurges (euphorbia), acacia, and tamarisk can be found. In the middle highlands, food crops as melons, nuts, grapes, and grains, as well as various spurges, eucalyptus, sycamore, fig, and carob are found.

Meanwhile, crops such as coffee, the mild stimulant khat, and a variety of woody shrubs and trees can be found in the mountain regions.

While the country had considerable forest cover till the early 20th Century, it diminished by the turn of the century. This was the same case with the country’s wildlife.

People

Arabs make up most of the population in Yemen. The others include those of Somali descent along the coasts and small Egyptian communities. The citizens are extremely proud of their pre-Islamic history, including that of the Saba and Hadramawt kingdoms. The traditional and contemporary Yemeni culture has presence of Greek, Roman, Indian, Indonesian, and Chinese influence.

Though the traditional cuisine is somewhat similar to other areas of the Arabian Peninsula, it is also influenced by the cuisine of eastern Africa and South Asia. A popular dish in Yemen is saltah, a stew of lamb or chicken heavily spiced with fenugreek and other herbs.

The best known cultural artefact is domestic architecture that dates back more than 2,000 years. The city of Sanaa and the towns of Zabid and Shibam are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Government

To understand the form of government in Yemen, it is to be noted that the country was once divided as North Yemen and South Yemen. North Yemen was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire while South Yemen was governed by the British. North Yemen became independent after World War I and South Yemen didn’t gain its independence from the British until 1967. This caused both regions to have contrasting political systems.

North Yemen was a republic governed nominally under a constitution adopted in 1970. South Yemen, also republican in form, had a Marxist regime wherein the Yemen Socialist Party was the only legal political organisation that determined government policy and exercised control over the state administrative system, the legislature, and the military.

A unified political system was created in 1990, which introduced the multiparty representative democracy. The President is the head of state who is responsible for appointing the Vice-President and the Prime Minister (head of the government).

At present, the country is led by Rashad al-Alimi, chairman of the Presidential Leadership Council after then-President Abdrabbuh Mansour Hadi transferred his powers to the council in April 2022. The Presidential Leadership Council was formed in 2022. It is responsible for negotiating with the Houthis to agree an a permanent ceasefire and a political solution to the war.

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What is historical fiction?

As the name suggests, it’s a fictionalised version of history. But, as Booker-winning British author Hilary Mantel’s famous trilogy shows, such novels have the power to ignite reader interest in history

“Award-winning British author Hilary Mantel dies at 70” announced media all over the world in September. Not all writers are fortunate enough to get such a global coverage but as she had the distinction of being the first woman writer to win the Booker Prize twice and popularise the genre of historical fiction, she was accorded such a high recognition. To honour her and to familiarise us with her work, our English teacher organised a presentation in the morning assembly. It is a practice in our school to focus on such significant moments.

An alumnus of our school, currently studying Engineering, was invited to talk to us as he was known to have read her writings widely. What follows is some ideas from his presentation.

He started off by saying that though there were several kinds of fiction such as adventure novels, horror novels, utopian novels, and sci-fi, he was always fascinated by historical novels for two reasons: “One, they narrate stories based on a historical figure, and second, readers can acquaint themselves with many facets of life of that period.”

Having underscored the benefits of reading historical fiction, he moved on to inform us that Mantel was a prolific writer-published 12 novels, two collections of short stories, and a huge number of articles and essays, but it was the trilogy centered around Thomas Cromwell that brought her fame. She chose to fictionalise the life of Cromwell, a fascinating historical figure of the 16th Century, who was chief minister to King Henry VIII but ordered by the same king to be beheaded on the charges of treason. He, thus, tasted the glory of power, and on the other hand, suffered the humiliation meant for a criminal. She chose to present such an intriguing character interestingly.

Cromwell was the case of ‘rags to riches’, he pointed out. Cromwell was the son of a blacksmith but worked his way to become the most trusted advisor to the king. It happened at a time when such happening was considered inconceivable as what mattered most was the =family fame to be in the royal court. The writer, obviously, identified a character, which would arouse the curiosity of any reader and to trace his unlikely rise and fall.

Wolf Hall (2009), the first of the trilogy, portrayed Cromwell’s rise from his ‘low’ parentage to becoming the wealthiest and the most influential person in King Henry VIII’s court. By contriving to annul King’s first marriage with Katherine, and enabling him to marry Anne Boleyn, he earned the king’s trust. Later, he managed to bring in a legislation, despite the opposition, to ensure the succession of Anne’s children to the throne.

The second of the trilogy. Bring up the Bodies (2012) was a continuation of the first. As the king found Anne, his second wife, argumentative and irksome, he decided to separate and marry Jane Seymour. Cromwell schemed his way to get Anne arrested on the charges of cheating on the king, and he encircled a few others who stood in his way and got them executed along with her. Thus, he was delineated as an ambitious, unscrupulous, and corrupt politician who was bent upon achieving what he desired at any cost.

The alumnus told us that he was yet to read the last one, The Mirror and the Light published in 2020. But from the reviews he got to know that it was about the last four years of Cromwell’s life, and was curious to read it.

Commenting on the writer’s style, he highlighted that although she was dealing with the past, she preferred to employ the present tense to create a sense of contemporaneity to her readers. And her frequent use of dialogues gave an image of observing the characters talking to each other alive. He concluded stating, “After reading the first novel, I felt an urge to know about the Tudor history. So historical novels could ignite reader interest in history but it’s not a must to understand them.” He suggested that we must read her trilogy to appreciate historical novels.

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HOW DID MATZELIGER LASTING MACHINE CHANGE THE SHOE INDUSTRY?

On May 29, 1885, self-tought inventor Jan Ernst Matzeliger conducted the first public demonstration of his shoe-lasting machine. By automating a stage of shoe production that everyone thought was impossible to do, Matezliger forever change the shoe manufacturing industry.

Do you know what the term “lasting” means in the shoe industry? Lasting corresponds to the operation of stretching the shoe upper over the foot form or “last”. There are many ways in which these lasting operations are performed and almost all shoes in today’s world are lasted in some way.

For the longest time it was believed that lasting could not be automated. Even as the rest of the shoe-making process was mechanised, hand lasters held a special place in the footwear factory as they continued to pull uppers over and nail them onto the lasts. Dutch inventor Jan Ernst Matzeliger changed all that with his shoe-lasting machine.

Matzeliger was born in 1852 on a coffee plantation in Dutch Guiana-now Suriname, a small country on the northern coast of South America. Even at the young age of 10, Matzeliger demonstrated a natural aptitude for machinery as an apprentice in machine shops.

Fights language barrier

At the age of 19. Matzeliger went to the sea, spending two years as a mechanic on a merchant ship before settling in Philadelphia, the U.S. As he spoke very little English, he had to be content doing odd jobs. including that of a shoemakers apprentice, for the next few years. When he moved to Lynn, Massachusetts, in 1877, he was looking to pursue his interest in shoe making.

Finding work in a shoe factory, Matzeliger did everything that was entrusted upon him during his 10-hour work day. He spent the evenings and nights educating himself, studying English to improve his fluency in the language and studying other subjects to enhance his mechanical abilities. He dabbled with art as well, painting pictures that he gifted to his friends and even conducting classes in oil painting.

Looks to automate lasting

Matzeliger noticed that while shoe companies had machinery for most purposes, lasting was still done by hand. While many believed that it was impossible for a machine to replicate this important step, Matzeliger took it upon himself to automate the process.

Years of experimentation followed as he tried to duplicate the movements of the hand lasters that he observed in the machine he was building. Apart from securing a working space and access to machine tools at the company he worked with, he also scraped through their junkyards and factory dumps to find usable machinery that he could alter for his requirements. By 1882, he had a working device ready.

Matzeliger filed for a patent on January 24, 1882. The text and drawings of his 15-page document, however, were so complex that an inspector had to visit him to understand the workings of his machine.

Better than the best

Matzeliger received a patent for his lasting machine on March 20, 1883. This machine employed pincers to hold an upper, pulled it over the last and held it in place, before pinning the leather to the last and discharging the completed shoe. Matzeligers machine could easily outdo even the best of hand lasters, who managed 60 pairs of shoes a day.

In the next couple of years. Matzeliger further tweaked this device with engineering improvements to make it industry-ready. When he was finally satisfied, he held a public demonstration on May 29, 1885. The machine reproduced the technique used by hand lasters. but at a much greater speed-it was capable of producing as many as 700 pairs of shoes each day.

Along with two investors who provided capital in exchange for two-thirds ownership of the device, Matzeliger formed a company to market his machine. With the demand for the lasting machine increasing rapidly, the organisation grew fast and soon merged with many other shoe manufacturers to form the United Shoe Machinery Company.

Matzeliger, however, didn’t enjoy the financial windfall that followed as he died from tuberculosis in 1889 at the young age of 36. Despite the prejudices that he suffered, both because of his colour and the fact that he lacked formal education, Matzeliger not only revolutionised footwear production, but also made high-quality shoes affordable for everyone. We don’t have to look beyond the shoes we wear each day to see the lasting impact that one young man who was tirelessly driven by an idea has had.

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Who were the Cossacks of Ukraine?

The story of the Cossacks goes back to the 15th century. Some adventurous men would seasonally enter the vast steppes of Ukraine to hunt, fish, and gather honey. The term Cossack was first used to describe these martial groups. To their numbers were added peasants running away from their landlords to escape serfdom, and even adventurers from other social groups including the nobility. Together, these groups gradually evolved into a new martial society that banded together for mutual protection. By the mid-16th century, the Cossacks had formed a unique military organization with a democratic structure. The supreme authority lay with a general assembly of elected officers, with a ‘hetman’ as the commander-in-chief.

The Cossacks played a crucial role in Ukraine’s eventful history. They defended the frontier population from the Tatar invaders, made their own incursions into Crimean territory, and even into the coastal cities of Turkey. The Polish government was happy to seek the support of Cossacks in their wars with the Tatars, Turks and Muscovites. But they were not easy allies to keep in peacetime, being very volatile. The Cossacks were angry with any attempt to control or monitor them, and viewed themselves as an independent group with its own rights.

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WHICH IS THE LONGEST POEM IN THE WORLD?

The Mahabharata is the longest known epic poem and has been described as “the longest poem ever written”. Its longest version consists of over 100,000 shloka or over 200,000 individual verse lines (each shloka is a couplet), and long prose passages. About 1.8 million words in total, the Mahabharata is roughly ten times the length of the Iliad and the Odyssey combined, or about four times the length of the Ramayana.

The Mahabharata, an ancient Indian epic poem originally composed in Sanskrit in around the fourth century BC or thereabouts. Like the Iliad and the Odyssey, it was originally passed down orally before eventually being written down and later standardized. The ancient Indian epic stands as the longest poem ever written, about 10 times as long as “The Iliad” and “The Odyssey” combined. The tale of a rivalry and war between cousins, it’s mammoth not only in scale but in its intricate complexity, with many hauntingly tragic stories nestled within it that are almost incidental to the larger narrative and yet somehow inextricably part of its rich tapestry. The famous Hindu text the “Bhagavad Gita” is just one philosophical conversation that the great archer Arjuna has with his charioteer Krishna on the way to battle in the middle of the “Mahabharata.” As with other great works of mythology and folklore, the “Mahabharata” has proven an inexhaustible inspiration for dramatizations and other adaptations.

Credit : Kavishala labs

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Was the Red Fort always red?

Red Fort has always been of place of attention, interest, and curiosity for anyone born in this nation India. Emperor Shah Jahan commissioned the construction of the Red Fort on 12 May 1638, when he decided to shift his capital from Agra Delhi Originally red and white, its design is credited to architect Ustad Ahmad Lahori, who also constructed the Taj Mahal. As per the Archaeological Survey of India, parts of the building were made of limestone which is usually white in colour. It was only after the white stone started chipping off that the building was painted fully red by the British. The Red Fort is famous for its massive enclosing walls. The fort’s construction was completed over a span of ten years, between 1638 and 1648.

Red Fort was not always known by its current name? It was originally known as “Qila-e-Mubarak”. This name simplifies to “The Blessed Fort”. The interesting fact is this Fort was not initially known as ‘Lal Qila’ but ‘Qila -e -Mubarak’ which means the ‘Blessed Fort’. It was also said that the Kohinoor diamond was part of the Shah Jahan’s throne, known as the famous name; Peacock Throne, which was later abducted by Nadir Shah during the Persian Invasion in 1738.

Bahadur Shah Zafar, the final Mughal Emperor, became a symbol of the 1857 insurrection against the British dominion. The British tried him for treason in his own house, the Red Fort. The trial was held at Diwan-i-Khas, surrounded by the British court, and the emperor was judged guilty, and his title was removed from him. He was afterwards banished to Rangoon (now called Myanmar).

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Why is Mona Lisa so famous? Does Mona Lisa have her own mailbox?

The Mona Lisa is a half length oil-painted portrait by Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci. It has been described as the best known, most visited, most written about, most sung about and most parodied work of art in the world. The masterpiece has been on display at the Louvre in Paris since 1797. Mona Lisa is the only painting to have her own mailbox at the Louvre because of all the letters that are addressed to her. This painting is painted as oil on wood. The original painting size is 77 x 53 cm (30 x 20 7/8 in) and is owned by the Government of France. In France, it is actually illegal to buy or sell the Mona Lisa. It is the most famous painting in the world, and yet, when viewers manage to see the artwork up close, they are likely to be baffled by the small subdued portrait of an ordinary woman.

Mona Lisa, also known as La Gioconda, is the wife of Francesco del Giocondo. This painting is painted as oil on wood. The original painting size is 77 x 53 cm (30 x 20 7/8 in) and is owned by the Government of France and is on the wall in the Louvre in Paris, France.

This figure of a woman, dressed in the Florentine fashion of her day and seated in a visionary, mountainous landscape, is a remarkable instance of Leonardo’s sfumato technique of soft, heavily shaded modeling. The Mona Lisa’s enigmatic expression, which seems both alluring and aloof, has given the portrait universal fame.

The Mona Lisa’s famous smile represents the sitter in the same way that the juniper branches represent Ginevra Benci and the ermine represents Cecilia Gallerani in their portraits, in Washington and Krakow respectively. It is a visual representation of the idea of happiness suggested by the word “gioconda” in Italian. Leonardo made this notion of happiness the central motif of the portrait: it is this notion that makes the work such an ideal. The nature of the landscape also plays a role. The middle distance, on the same level as the sitter’s chest, is in warm colors. Men live in this space: there are a winding road and a bridge. This space represents the transition between the space of the sitter and the far distance, where the landscape becomes a wild and uninhabited space of rocks and water which stretches to the horizon, which Leonardo has cleverly drawn at the level of the sitter’s eyes.

The painting was among the first portraits to depict the sitter before an imaginary landscape and Leonardo was one of the first painters to use aerial perspective. The enigmatic woman is portrayed seated in what appears to be an open loggia with dark pillar bases on either side. Behind her, a vast landscape recedes to icy mountains. Winding paths and a distant bridge give only the slightest indications of human presence. The sensuous curves of the woman’s hair and clothing, created through sfumato, are echoed in the undulating imaginary valleys and rivers behind her. The blurred outlines, graceful figure, dramatic contrasts of light and dark, and overall feeling of calm are characteristic of da Vinci’s style. Due to the expressive synthesis that da Vinci achieved between sitter and landscape, it is arguable whether Mona Lisa should be considered as a traditional portrait, for it represents an ideal rather than a real woman. The sense of overall harmony achieved in the painting especially apparent in the sitter’s faint smile reflects the idea of a link connecting humanity and nature.

In the Renaissance which brought together all human activities, art meant science, art meant truth to life: Leonardo da Vinci was a great figure because he embodied the epic endeavor of Italian art to conquer universal values: he who combined within himself the fluctuating sensitivity of the artist and the deep wisdom of the scientist, he, the poet and the master.

Credit : Leonardo da vinci

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Who is the longest-reigning british monarch in world history?

Queen Elizabeth II was the first British sovereign to celebrate the Platinum Jubilee (70 years of service) recently. She is currently the world’s longest reigning monarch, having ascended the throne on February 6, 1952. However, the Queen still has some way to go to achieve the longest recorded reign-that of Louis XIV of France, also known as Louis the Great. Louis XIV was King of France for 72 years and 110 days, from 1643 to until his demise in 1715.

Elizabeth I – the last Tudor monarch – was born at Greenwich on 7 September 1533, the daughter of Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne Boleyn. Her early life was full of uncertainties, and her chances of succeeding to the throne seemed very slight once her half-brother Edward was born in 1537. She was then third in line behind her Roman Catholic half-sister, Princess Mary. Roman Catholics, indeed, always considered her illegitimate and she only narrowly escaped execution in the wake of a failed rebellion against Queen Mary in 1554.

Elizabeth succeeded to the throne on her half-sister’s death in November 1558. She was very well-educated (fluent in five languages), and had inherited intelligence, determination and shrewdness from both parents. Her 45-year reign is generally considered one of the most glorious in English history. During it a secure Church of England was established. Its doctrines were laid down in the 39 Articles of 1563, a compromise between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. Elizabeth herself refused to ‘make windows into men’s souls … there is only one Jesus Christ and all the rest is a dispute over trifles’; she asked for outward uniformity. Most of her subjects accepted the compromise as the basis of their faith, and her church settlement probably saved England from religious wars like those which France suffered in the second half of the 16th century.

Although autocratic and capricious, Elizabeth had astute political judgement and chose her ministers well; these included William Cecil, later Lord Burghley (Secretary of State), Sir Christopher Hatton (Lord Chancellor) and Sir Francis Walsingham (in charge of intelligence and also a Secretary of State).

Overall, Elizabeth’s administration consisted of some 600 officials administering the great offices of state, and a similar number dealing with the Crown lands (which funded the administrative costs). Social and economic regulation and law and order remained in the hands of the sheriffs at local level, supported by unpaid justices of the peace.

Elizabeth’s reign was one of considerable danger and difficulty for many, with threats of invasion from Spain through Ireland, and from France through Scotland. Much of northern England was in rebellion in 1569-70. A papal bull of 1570 specifically released Elizabeth’s subjects from their allegiance, and she passed harsh laws against Roman Catholics after plots against her life were discovered.

As a likely successor to Elizabeth, Mary spent 19 years as Elizabeth’s prisoner because Mary was the focus for rebellion and possible assassination plots, such as the Babington Plot of 1586.

During Elizabeth’s long reign, the nation also suffered from high prices and severe economic depression, especially in the countryside, during the 1590s. The war against Spain was not very successful after the Armada had been beaten and, together with other campaigns, it was very costly.

Despite the combination of financial strains and prolonged war after 1588, Parliament was not summoned more often. There were only 16 sittings of the Commons during Elizabeth’s reign, five of which were in the period 1588-1601. Although Elizabeth freely used her power to veto legislation, she avoided confrontation and did not attempt to define Parliament’s constitutional position and rights.

Overall, Elizabeth’s always shrewd and, when necessary, decisive leadership brought successes during a period of great danger both at home and abroad. She died at Richmond Palace on 24 March 1603, having become a legend in her lifetime. The date of her accession was a national holiday for two hundred years.

Credit : ROYAL.UK

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What happened on the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month in 1918?

The Great War (World War I) ended at the 11th hour on the 11th day of the 11th month of 1918. At 5 a.m., Germany, bereft of manpower and supplies and faced with imminent invasion, signed an armistice agreement with the Allies in a railroad car outside Compiégne, France. WWI left 9 million soldiers dead and 21 million wounded. At least 5 million civilians died from disease, starvation or exposure.

Berlin calls for talks

On October 3, Germany’s Emperor, Kaiser Wilhelm II, appoints as chancellor Prince Max of Baden who has long advocated a negotiated peace with Britain, France and the United States. The very next day the new chancellor telegraphs U.S. President Woodrow Wilson to call for talks. The Allies demand Germany’s unconditional surrender and the Kaiser’s abdication. Pressure builds on Berlin. German forces, their spring offensive long exhausted, are beating a disorderly retreat. On November 3, German ally Austria-Hungary capitulates and signs an armistice.

German negotiators enter France

Tensions mount in Germany as naval forces mutiny at Kiel and a general strike is called on November 5. French officers, meanwhile, receive the order to allow safe passage of top German diplomats into Allied territory. On November 7, at 8.30 p.m., a ceasefire is sounded at La Capelle in northern France, near the Belgium border. It is the first in more than 50 months of war and allows the German delegation, led by Minister of State Matthias Erzberger, to cross into an Allied zone. The diplomats take a train to a secluded forest clearing near Compiegne to meet Allied forces commander General Ferdinand Foch.

Armistice signed

Night has fallen on the forest clearing when the messenger returns, on November 10, with the commander’s permission. Negotiations resume. For three more hours the Germans argue, clause by clause. Eventually there is a final version: by 5.20 a.m. on November 11, the armistice ending a war started four years earlier is signed in a train carriage in the woods. The news reaches the troops quickly, and is received with disbelief. Some commanders decide to continue fighting to the bitter end; others will not risk any further lives. On the stroke of 11 a.m. the ceasefire agreed just hours earlier is sounded by bugles and clarions along the hundreds of kilometres of front line that stretch across Europe. Soldiers gradually emerge from the trenches, stunned.

War is over

Celebrations erupt in the capitals of the Allied victors. Civilians pour into the streets, thronging the Place de la Concorde in Paris, Piccadilly Circus in London, New York’s Fifth Avenue, the Piazza Venezia in Rome. Church bells ring out at full peal and people dance in the streets.

Credit : The Hindu 

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As it was a centre of the cotton industry in the 19th Century, which city in England was earlier nicknamed Cottonopolis?

Cottonopolis was a 19th-century nickname for Manchester, as it was a metropolis and the centre of the cotton industry.

Early cotton mills powered by water were built in Lancashire and its neighbouring counties. In 1781 Richard Arkwright opened the world’s first steam-driven textile mill on Miller Street in Manchester. Although initially inefficient, the arrival of steam power signified the beginning of the mechanisation that was to enhance the burgeoning textile industries in Manchester into the world’s first centre of mass production. As textile manufacture switched from the home to factories, Manchester and towns in south and east Lancashire became the largest and most productive cotton spinning centre in the world using in 1871, 32% of global cotton production. Ancoats, part of a planned expansion of Manchester, became the first industrial suburb centred on steam power. There were mills whose architectural innovations included fireproofing by use of iron and reinforced concrete.

The number of cotton mills on Manchester peaked at 108 in 1853. As the numbers declined, cotton mills opened in the surrounding towns, Bury, Oldham (at its zenith the most productive cotton spinning town in the world, Rochdale, Bolton (known as “Spindleton” in 1892) and in Blackburn, Darwen, Rawtenstall, Todmorden and Burnley. As the manufacturing centre of Manchester shrank, the commercial centre, warehouses, banks and services for the 280 cotton towns and villages within a 12-mile radius of the Royal Exchange grew. The term “Cottonopolis” came into use in about 1870.

The commercial centre of Cottonopolis was the exchange’s trading hall. The first of Manchester’s exchanges was built in the market place by Sir Oswald Mosley in 1727 for chapmen to transact business. It was subsequently re-built three times. Thomas Harrison built an exchange in the Greek Revival style between 1806 and 1809. After it opened, membership was required and trading was not restricted to textiles. Its early members were the owners of mills and warehouses, but later business was conducted by their agents and managers. Harrison’s exchange was enlarged between 1847 and 1849 by Alex Mills. After a visit in 1851, Queen Victoria granted the exchange the title the Manchester Royal Exchange. The third exchange, designed by Mills and Murgatroyd, opened in 1874. It was built in the Classical style with Corinthian columns and a dome. The Royal Exchange was lavishly re-built by architects Bradshaw Gass & Hope in 1914–21 and at the time had the largest trading room in the world. Its vast hall was 29.2 metres high and had an area of 3683 square metres. The exchange had a membership of up to 11,000 cotton merchants who met every Tuesday and Friday to trade their wares beneath the 38.5-metre high central glass dome. It was badly damaged in World War II and ceased operation for cotton trading in 1968.

 

Picture Credit : Google