Category Ancient World\’s Commanders

           Carl Von Clausewitz was a Prussian soldier and German military theorist who stressed the moral and political aspects of war. He entered the Prussian army in 1792. Clausewitz became one of the leaders of Prussian army reform, but later resigned from the Prussian army and entered Russian service.

            Clausewitz distinguished himself as a Russian staff officer. After several successful campaigns, he returned to Prussian service, and served as chief of staff of an army corps during the Waterloo campaign. In 1818, he became a general and was appointed administrative head of the War College.

             During the next 12 years, Clausewitz used much of the leisure that this position provided in writing his historical studies and his major work on strategy, ‘On War’. It is on this that his fame rests. He left his imprint on German military thought, and became known as a ‘philosopher of war’.  

             Napoleon Bonaparte was one of the world’s greatest military leaders, and Emperor of France. He was a complex man, who at the start of his career was constructive, and took France to new heights of power, but by the end, had brought her years of war and destruction.

             In 1796, Napoleon was made commander of the French army in Italy, where he forced Austria and its allies to come to the negotiating table. Two years later, he conquered Ottoman-ruled Egypt. In1799, Napoleon became first Consul when the existing government in France was overthrown. In 1803, Britain resumed war with France, later joined by Russia and Austria. Britain inflicted a naval defeat on the French, so Napoleon abandoned plans to invade England. However, he continued his conquests that gave him control of Europe.

Continue reading “Why were Napoleon Bonaparte’s military achievements remarkable?”

               Horatio Nelson was a British naval commander and national hero, famous for his naval victories against the French during the Napoleonic Wars. When Britain entered the French Revolutionary Wars in 1793, Nelson was given command of the Agamemnon. He served in the Mediterranean, helped capture Corsica, and saw battle at Calvi, where he lost the sight in his right eye. He would later lose his right arm at the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife in 1797.

               Nelson led his fleet to many victories against the Spanish off Cape Vincent in 1797. At the Battle of Copenhagen, four years later, he ignored orders to cease action by putting his telescope to his blind eye and claiming he couldn’t see the signal to withdraw! Nelson’s most famous engagement was at Cape Trafalgar, where he saved Britain from the threat of invasion by Napoleon. He was killed by a French sniper a few hours later, while leading the attack. Is it any wonder that he is considered one of the world’s greatest naval leaders? 

            Benedict Arnold was a military hero for both sides in the same war between Britain and the Americans. He began his career as an American Patriot in May 1775, and led the brigade that captured Fort Ticonderoga on Lake Champlain. Arnold’s heroics continued in September, when he led an expedition of 1,150 riflemen against Quebec, the capital of British Canada. Even though the effort ended in disaster, he fought bravely and honourably. For the next five years, Arnold served the Patriots side with distinction in one battle after another. No general was more imaginative than Arnold, no field officer more daring, no soldier more courageous.

             Yet Arnold has gone down in history not as a hero, but as a military traitor who, as commander of the American fort at West Point, New York, in 1780, schemed to hand it over to the British. Why did he do this? It is said that after so many sacrifices, he became disillusioned with the war’s progress. Perhaps even more important, he grew deeply mistrustful of the cause’s civilian leaders and, ultimately, Arnold himself felt betrayed. He began to feel that British rule would perhaps be best for his country but the fact is that he will be remembered as both a hero and a traitor to his country!

             Simon Bolivar was a patriot, statesman and liberator of five South American republics. His life was dedicated to the independence of the then Spanish colonies, and the dream of Latin American unity.

             In 1810, he fought against the Spanish during a revolt in Venezuela and was forced to flee the country. Bolivar again invaded Venezuela again in 1817. He established a revolutionary government at Angostura, and he was elected president of Venezuela. In 1819, Bolivar’s army defeated the Spanish at Boyaca. Several months later, he became president of the newly formed republic of Colombia, consisting of Venezuela and New Granada.

            In 1824, Bolivar led the revolutionary forces of Peru in their fight for independence. He was elected president of Peru in 1825, and later organized in Southern Peru a new republic, which was named Bolivia in his honour. Today he is known as ‘The Liberator’ His integrity, high morals, and perseverance in the face of overwhelming odds have made him a role model for many. 

George Washington was the first President of the United States of America. He served as President from April 30th, 1789, until March 4th, 1797. As a young man, Washington joined the Virginia militia. After many heroic battles, Washington became a colonel, and the leader of Virginia’s militia. In the American Revolutionary War between Britain and her colonies in America, Washington was unanimously named Commander-in-Chief of the United States Army. He led them to significant victories, such as the capture of Boston along with major defeats, including the loss of New York City. However, Washington’s moral strength kept the American army in a fighting mood, despite many trials and setbacks.

On July 4th, 1776 the United States government published the Declaration of Independence, but the war continued. However, by 1781, the United States had won several big battles. In October, the English army surrendered to George Washington. That was the end of the Revolutionary War, and Washington, who was immensely popular as a war hero, was an obvious choice as the first President of the United States of America. 

           The young Robert Clive was an uncontrollable teenager who terrorized the people of his hometown in Britain. Finally, Clive’s long-suffering father could stand no more, and the young man was packed off to India, at the age of 17, as a clerk in the East India Company in Madras. In 1746, Madras was captured by the French, and Clive and several others escaped to Fort St. George, 20 miles away. Here he joined the East India Company’s private army, and found his role in life-that of soldier, imperial statesman and politician.

           Clive quickly began to build a reputation for courage and skill in battle in the wars against the French. With a force of just 200 Europeans and 300 native soldiers, backed up with a handful of guns, Clive took the central fort of Argot, and proceeded to hold it against all the odds. His exploits won him the name Sabut Jung, or ‘the daring in war’.

            Later, Clive became Lieutenant Colonel and Deputy Governor of Fort St. David. He was involved in several key battles. One was the battle of Calcutta in February 1757.This inspired a series of victories that led to the decisive win at the Battle of Plassey-a battle that strengthened British control of India. Thus, Robert Clive had almost single-handedly secured the beginning of the British Empire, and brought about the unique mix between British and Indian cultures. 

            Jean Baptiste de Gribeauval was a French military officer and engineer, whose developments of French artillery contributed to the brilliant military successes of Napoleon in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. He joined the French army in 1732, and was promoted to the rank of officer within three years. During the Seven Years’ War, which lasted from 1756 until 1763, Gribeauval was attached to the Austrian army as a general of artillery. Returning to France as a lieutenant general, he attempted to use the knowledge he had gained in Austria to improve his country’s obsolete artillery system.

             In 1776, Gribeauval was assigned to the position of general of artillery. He trained younger officers, including Napoleon Bonaparte, and was able to implement his artillery reforms on a broad scale. He also introduced many reforms that made the French army a leader in the use of artillery. 

Peter the Great was a very capable Russian emperor, who possessed exceptional abilities as a statesman, organizer, and reformer. He engineered a series of reforms that put Russia among the major European powers. Peter opened Russia to the west. He invited the best European engineers, shipbuilders, architects, craftsmen and merchants to come to Russia. Hundreds of Russians were sent to Europe to get the best education, and learn different arts and crafts.

One of Peter’s main goals was to regain access to the Baltic Sea and Baltic trade. In 1700, he started the Northern War with Sweden, which lasted for 21 years. In the course of the war, St. Petersburg was founded. In this war, Russia was victorious, and conquered the vast lands on the Baltic Coast. Russia gained access to European trade. St Petersburg became her major sea port, and Peter made it his capital.

Peter was an experienced army officer, navy admiral, and a skilful shipbuilder. It has to be said that Peter was also very cruel. Several coup attempts against him ended with mass executions. Nevertheless, Peter’s personality and massive reforms have inspired generations of historians, writers, and ordinary people.

            Maurice of Nassau was a Dutch general and statesman. In 1585, he was made the chief executive of the northern provinces of the Netherlands. Maurice consolidated the power of the provinces against Spain, and made them trade and shipping centres. Under his guidance, the power and wealth of the republic rapidly increased, and the Dutch East India Company was formed.

            Maurice used military planning and siege warfare to defeat Spanish forces. He made the Dutch army the most modern in Europe. He created a system of proper military training for officers, particularly in the technical branches. On the death of his elder brother Philip William, in 1618, Maurice became the Prince of Orange. He was now supreme in the state, and effectively the King of the Netherlands.

              Yi Sun-sin was a famous Korean naval commander. When the Japanese, under Toyotomi Hideyoshi, invaded Korea in 1592, Korea would have fallen if it weren’t for the leadership of Admiral Yi. He alone was responsible for turning the tide of this important era of Asian history.

              Admiral Yi is famous for the turtle ships that he designed. These were the first ironclad warships, and played a significant part in the war against the Japanese invaders. On September 16th, 1597, Admiral Yi led 12 turtle ships against 133 Japanese ships in the Myeongnyang Straits. The Koreans sank 31 enemy ships, and sent the others fleeing in this battle. On November 19th, 1598, Admiral Yi was shot during the final battle of the war. He commanded that his body be hidden by a shield so his enemies could not see that he had fallen. He was only 54 years old when he died.

             There have been many great military leaders honoured for their service to their countries- and without doubt, Admiral Yi Sun-sin of Korea is one of them.

           Tokugawa Leyasu was a warrior, statesman, and founder of the Tokugawa dynasty of shoguns. At the time of his birth, Japan was torn by civil war, with violent feuds between territorial lords which had lasted for nearly a century. Leyasu’s father’s death had left him as leader of the clan known as Matsudaira.

              In 1567, he allied with Oda Nobunaga, a powerful neighbour, and spent the next decade-and-a-half campaigning with Nobunaga while expanding his own influence and wealth. He had by now gained a considerable military reputation. When Nobunaga was assassinated in 1582, Leyasu acquired more territory, and allied with Nobunaga’s successor, Hideyoshi.

            The leading military figures in Japan now began to scheme against each other, and civil war again broke out. In 1600, Leyasu defeated his enemies in the Battle of Sekigahara, thereby achieving supremacy in Japan. In 1603, Emperor Go-Yzei, the ruler only in name, gave Leyasu the historic title of Shogun or military governor. Japan was now united under Leyasu’s control. He worked hard to restore stability to Japan, and encouraged foreign trade.

             Leyasu died on 17th April 1616 and his mausoleum at Nikko has become one of the most important shrines in Japan. 

          Ivan’s death has been a point of controversy, as there are several versions, some of which assume that he died a natural death, while according to others, he was murdered.

        It is said that Ivan died while playing chess with one of his close associates. However, in the 1960’s, after Ivan’s tomb was opened and his remains exhumed, it was discovered that they contained high amounts of mercury which led to speculations that he was poisoned. Another theory is that, Ivan was strangled by one of his enemies.

           When Russia had a royal family, the emperor was called the Tsar. Tsars ruled Russia from 1547 to 1917. The first Russian ruler to use this title was Ivan IV, also known as Ivan the Terrible.

           Ivan the Terrible assumed the throne in 1547 at the age of seventeen. His reign was peppered with battles with foreign invaders, and by a rule of terror never before seen in Russian history. Ivan suspected conspiracies everywhere, and eventually announced he would abdicate because of the lack of loyalty around him. He was only willing to continue to rule if he could deal with alleged deserters at his discretion.

           His terms were accepted, and Ivan launched his reign of terror. He hired a large personal army, the Oprichniki, and all potential traitors were cruelly executed. People were impaled and mutilated, while whipping and torture were common. Ivan built a palace in Moscow, and the dungeons were supposedly full of prisoners, of which at least twenty were tortured to death everyday in front of the laughing Tsar. Thousands were hanged, drowned, or deported, while the buildings and countryside were plundered and destroyed.

           Despite his cruelty, Ivan improved Russia’s governmental administration, and contributed to the nation’s culture. Ivan was also a good writer, with a talent for biting sarcasm. He was eager to maintain political relations with Europe, and was a devout adherent of the Orthodox Church. Ivan alternated between periods of savagery and piety, often sending great memorial payments and treasures to monasteries- yet nothing could wipe out his reputation of being truly ‘terrible’! 

               In 1519, an explorer by the name of Hernan Cortes left his home in Cuba in order to explore Mexico. The major civilization in the region was that of the Aztecs, led by Montezuma II. Cortes and over 500 men arrived in Mexico, and began travelling towards the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. It is thought that Cortes’s arrival coincided with an Aztec prophecy about a white-skinned god arriving from the east. So, at first, Montezuma welcomed Cortes and gave him lavish gifts. However, relations quickly deteriorated and, fearing an attack, Cortes took Montezuma hostage, demanding a huge ransom from his people.

                After Montezuma was killed during a revolt in Tenochtitlan, Cortes laid siege to the city, which fell after three-months. A new settlement, Mexico City, was built on the ruins, and settled with Spanish colonists, becoming the centre of Spanish America. Cortes secured control over Mexico, and in 1523, was named governor and captain general of New Spain.

               Francisco Pizarro was a Spanish soldier and explorer. Although he was born into a poor family, Pizarro settled in Panama City on the Pacific Coast, and became known as one of its most famous and richest citizens. However, rumours about a very wealthy Inca Empire were circulating at the time, and craving more wealth and excitement, Pizarro set out in 1524 in search of this empire. He traveled through much of the Pacific Coast of America along Peru, and after many years of failed attempts, Pizarro finally ‘discovered’ the Incan Empire.

         Pizarro conquered the Incas brutally and quickly, and stole immense hoards of gold, silver, and other treasures. He looted, and generally destroyed the Incan capital of Cusco, and then founded Lima, which is the capital of modern Peru.

          Francisco de Almeida was a soldier and explorer, who established his reputation as a brilliant commander in the wars against the Moors of Granada. He was made the first Portuguese Viceroy of India in March 1505 by the King, Manuel I. Instead of sailing directly to India, he spent a year sailing up the eastern coast of Africa, building forts, and conquering Arab trading towns along the way. This provided the ships which followed with safe ports and provisions on the long journey.

           On his arrival in India, he established his base at Cochin, and with his son Lourenzo, explored the Malabar Coast and the island of Sri Lanka. He fought Arab, Egyptian, and Indian united fleets at every opportunity. Almeida set sail for Portugal in 1509. While restocking at the Cape of Good Hope, in Table Bay, he died in a skirmish with the Hottentots, on March 1st, 1510. 

           Mehmed II was a sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He extended the empire from Southeastern Europe to the Danube and from Anatolia to the Euphrates River. However, he is most famous for his siege of Constantinople, and his victory over the Byzantine Emperor, Constantine.

            When, at the age of twenty-one, Mehmed II sat on the throne of the Ottoman sultans, his first thoughts turned to taking over the Byzantine capital of Constantinople. He began his attack by taking control of the Strait of Bosphorus so as to cut off Constantinople from the Black Sea. Working to improve Constantinople’s defences, the Byzantine Emperor Constantine ensured that the massive walls were repaired and strengthened. To prevent a naval attack, Constantine directed that a large chain be stretched across the mouth of the harbour to block Ottoman ships from entering.

Continue reading “Why was Mehmed II’s victory at Constantinople a turning point in history?”

          After unifying the Mongols, Genghis Khan went on to conquer all of China. He breached the Great Wall, laid waste many cities along the way, and captured the capital. However, Genghis Khan was not a tyrant. He let the Chinese live as they had – there was no pressure to change their customs or persecution of their religion.

           Now that the Chinese were conquered, Genghis Khan turned his attention to trade. When the Sultan of Persia killed his ambassadors and refused to trade, Genghis Khan went to war yet again. He conquered almost all of West Asia, expanding the boundaries of the Mongol Empire until it covered almost all of Asia.

           After restoring the trade route in the west, Khan returned to his home in East Asia, only to find the people in China had revolted. He stopped the revolt, and was finally returning home when he fell ill and died. Thus ended the reign of Genghis Khan, one of the greatest rulers the world has ever seen.

            There have been many powerful generals who conquered, expanded their nation’s borders, and influenced millions of people by spreading their culture. Few generals, however, matched the effectiveness and cunning that was possessed by Genghis Khan of the Mongols.

             Genghis Khan’s real name was Temujin. When his father died, he was still a child, and his father’s enemies had the family exiled, believing that without a clan and the protection it offered, they would die. However, instead of giving up, the resourceful Mongol family lived off the land, and prospered. Temujin became stronger and stronger, and took control of the family. As he continued to grow, other tribes feared that he was becoming too strong, and devised a plan to capture Temujin. He was then tied with a wooden yoke that restricted his movement. However, he escaped one night by knocking his guard in the head.

             After escaping, Temujin started to make alliances with other tribes, and was eventually assimilated into the tribe of his wife. Soon after this event, the camp was raided, and his wife was captured. Temujin rescued his wife. Many men started to follow him, and Temujin was starting to become a Khan.

                Over next several years, Temujin gained several more followers, and started training his men for battle. The scattered Mongol people united, and became a single nation. Temujin, after eliminating all his rivals, became the supreme Khan, or Genghis Khan.

                Saladin was a famous military hero. His real name was Salah al Din Yusuf. He was Kurdish, hailing from Tikrit in Northern Iraq. He came to Egypt in 1168 as an assistant to his uncle, who was a general. After Saladin’s uncle died the next year, Saladin took power. In the late 12th century, he succeeded in uniting various parts of the Middle East and Mesopotamia, and in overtaking the Christian armies of the early crusades through a combination of shrewd diplomacy and decisive action. In 1187, Saladin recaptured Jerusalem at the Battle of Hattin. When his soldiers entered the city of Jerusalem, they were not allowed to kill civilians, rob people, or damage the city.

                 Saladin’s capture of Jerusalem prompted King Richard to launch the Third Crusade. Though he came close, Jerusalem eluded Richard. After a year’s stalemate, Richard made a truce with Saladin, and started his journey home. In 1193, Saladin died in Damascus. Saladin had earned himself a remarkable place in history.

         Enrico Dandolo was the Doge, or elected chief magistrate of the former republic of Venice. Dandolo had served Venice in diplomatic and perhaps military roles for many years, with at least two expeditions involving the Byzantine Empire based at Constantinople. He lost his sight in a battle with his city’s Byzantine rivals, but this did not prevent him from making Venice the greatest naval power in the Mediterranean. He did this by building ships for the Crusaders to transport their armies. The Crusaders were missions organized by the Church to recapture Christian lands that had been invaded by others. 

            The Venetians lent ships to the Crusaders, and supplied their armies with food and fodder for the horses for a staggering fee. The original plan of the Crusaders was to land an army in Egypt. However, Venice had a trade relationship with Egypt, and did not wish for this relationship to be threatened. When the Crusaders could not pay the amount that was due to Venice, Dandolo convinced the Crusaders to assist Venice in conquering the city of Zara, which was now under Hungarian control. Zara fell in November of 1202. Despite the plunder and economic gain of Zara, the wealth gained was still insufficient for the Crusaders to break free from their debt. So, Dandolo helped the Crusaders gain complete control over Constantinople on April 13th, 1204. In the days that followed, the Crusaders pillaged the city.

             Venice flourished under Dandolo. His foreign policy ensured Venice gained exclusive trading rights throughout the Mediterranean Sea. Historians often refer to him as the ‘founder of the Venetian Colonial Empire’. 

        England’s first Norman king, William I, was born in France, and was the Duke of Normandy. He was a cousin of the English king, Edward the Confessor.

        Early in 1066, Edward died, and Harold, Earl of Wessex was crowned king. William was furious, claiming that in 1051, Edward had promised him the throne, and that Harold had later sworn to support that claim.

        William built a fleet, and launched an invasion of England. Travelling by night, the Normans landed at Pevensey Bay and established their camp near Hastings. On 14th October, Harold’s army met William’s. It was a close-fought battle lasting all day, but Harold was killed, and his army collapsed. William was victorious, and on Christmas Day 1066, he was crowned king in Westminster Abbey.

         A Norman aristocracy became the new governing class, and many members of the English aristocracy including bishops, were replaced with Normans. 

           Toghril Beg was the founder of the Seljuk dynasty, which ruled in Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Anatolia during the 11th – 14th centuries. He belonged to a tribe called the Seljuks, who came from Central Asia. Toghril Beg was crowned tribal sultan in 1038, and began building an empire at once. By 1040, Toghril Beg had conquered all of the Persian Plateau, defeating every Arab or Persian force sent against him. He also conquered Armenia, a Roman territory. He was smart enough to study the Persian administration, and employ the same procedure to govern his empire.

           In 1055, Toghril Beg and his army entered the city of Baghdad. He took over the city, and freed the Caliph who was being held a prisoner by local strongman. Toghril Beg was then recognized in Baghdad at ‘Sovereign of the East and West’. He will always be remembered as the ruler who changed the history of the Middle East by establishing the great Seljuk Empire. 

                Otto I (Otto the Great) is considered by many historians to be the founder of the Holy Roman Empire. He convinced Pope John XII to crown him emperor, and over the course of his reign, Otto defeated revolts by his half-brother, his younger, brother, and his son, and expanded the boundaries of his empire through constant war. He extended the frontiers of the German kingdom, winning territory from the Slavs in the east, forcing the Bohemians to pay tribute, and gaining influence in Denmark and Burgundy. In 951 Otto became King of the Lombards, and married the queen of Italy.

                Otto deliberately made use of the bishops to strengthen his rule and by doing so, he provided a stable and long-lasting framework for Germany. By his victorious campaigns, he gave Germany peace and security from foreign attack.

                 Though warfare was frequent, Germany was stable under Otto’s rule, and a small cultural renaissance flourished. He also extended his authority over the church, and promoted missionary activity in lands he had conquered. By his death, Otto had created the most powerful state in Western Europe, and laid the foundation for the later Holy Roman Empire. Otto 1 was born in 912 and died in 973 AD.

              Charlemagne was king of the Franks in 768 AD, and one of Europe’s most successful monarchs. The Franks were legendary fighters. Using the strength and loyalty of his army, combined with his own leadership abilities, Charlemagne soon defeated most of the other barbarian tribes in Western Europe. He expanded the Frankish Empire to include Germany, all of France, most of Italy, and even sections of Northern Spain.

                One of the most important things Charlemagne did for the world was to turn his castle into a learning centre inviting scholars from all over the world to take up residence there. He also introduced many administrative reforms, and a jury system that ensured a fairer way of ensuring justice.

               Charlemagne held his kingdom together by the sheer force of his personality. He was over six feet tall, and had blonde hair that seemed to glow in the sun. He fought heroically in battles, and personally visited local administrators, creating new laws to protect his people. Charlemagne was brave and fair, and his people adored him for these qualities. 

            After his return from Italy, Attila married a young girl. The marriage took place in 453, and was celebrated with a grand feast, and plenty of alcohol. After dinner, the new couple retired to the wedding chamber. Attila did not show up the next morning, so his nervous servants opened the chamber door. The king was dead on the floor-‘covered with blood’, and his bride was huddled in a corner in a state of shock. No one really knows whether he died of a nose-bleed, or whether he was murdered by his wife, or whether he died of alcohol poisoning.

           Attila was king and general of the Hun Empire from 433 to 453 AD. The Huns were a Mongoloid people who began invading the Roman Empire in the 300’s. Attila united his subjects for the purpose of creating one of the most formidable and feared armies the ancient world had ever seen. He was so ferocious in his attacks, that he was called ‘the scourge of god’, by his enemies.

            From 435 to 439, Attila conquered, pillaged, and attacked his way through Eastern and Central Europe. The success of this invasion emboldened Attila to continue his westward expansion. Passing unhindered through Austria and Germany, Attila plundered and devastated all in his path. He suffered a setback in 451 when he was defeated by the combined forces of the Romans and the Visigoths.

             In 452, Attila and his horsemen crossed the Alps to invade Italy. Pope Leo I had to pay him money to stop him from sacking and destroying Rome. He devastated the western half of the Roman Empire, and controlled a region from the Danube River to the Baltic Sea and from the Rhine River to the Caspian Sea. 

          Flavius Aetius was a gifted soldier, who did more than any one man to help slow the inevitable fall of the Roman Empire, to the barbarian nations in the West, during the reign of Valentinian Ill. Aetius learned the arts of war well and at a young age, he could hold his own with grown men.

           He learned how to fight, while riding on a horse from the Huns who had held him hostage during his youth. This combined with his knowledge of standard Roman infantry tactics enabled him to come up with deadly strategies for dealing with almost any enemy.

            Some of the battles fought by Aetius became famous, while others are known only to scholars of history. When Gaul was attacked repeatedly, Aetius protected it. He drove back the Visigoths and the Franks, and won his famous victory in 451 over Attila at Chalons. During the reign of Valentinian Ill, Aetius made himself ruler of the Roman Empire, but eventually he was murdered by the emperor himself. 

The Huns were a war-like people from the steppes of North Central Asia, north of China. They were excellent horsemen, and their use of the stirrup gave them an advantage over their enemies. Stirrups are loops hung from a saddle that support a horse rider’s feet, and these loops let the Huns brace themselves on their horses while wielding swords, or shooting arrows. Their bows were also far superior to those found in Western Europe, because they were flexible enough to fully draw yard long arrows. The Huns also used the lasso very effectively.

             Alaric was a Gothic prince, born into a tribe that had settled south of the Danube in Roman territory. He became King of the Visigoths in 394. Upon gaining command of the Visigoths, Alaric immediately overran Greece. The Eastern Roman Emperor was too weak to resist him, and called upon Stilicho, the general in charge of the Western Empire, to aid him in driving out Alaric. Then, Alaric escaped to a province of Greece that lay on the east side of the Ionian Sea.

              Alaric next launched an invasion of Italy. In fact, the rest of his days would be spent fighting and negotiating with emperors of Rome for his people’s livelihood, or attacking Roman territories when negotiations fell through. In 410, during his third attack on Italy, Alaric led the Visigoths in a sack of the city of Rome. This event is sometimes considered the beginning of the Middle Ages. 

         Flavius Stilicho was one of the most powerful men in the Roman Empire during the reigns of Theodosius I and Honorius. When Theodosius died in 395, he left the empire divided between his two young sons, the West going to Honorius, with Stilicho as Regent. The Empire was immediately threatened by the Visigoths, under Alaric, who led them into Greece. Stilicho forced them to withdraw.

          In 400, Alaric invaded Italy. Stilicho called to his aid the Roman legions from Gaul and Britain, and the Visigoths were driven out in 403. In 405, a barbarian horde that poured into Italy from the north was almost wiped out by Stilicho’s forces.

           Later, a minister of Honorius’ named Olympius convinced the young emperor that Stilicho wanted to depose him, and put his own son on the throne. Honorius believed this, and ordered for Stilicho’s arrest. He later beheaded Stilicho. Alaric immediately invaded Italy again, and captured Rome. 

Chandragupta II (380-415 AD) was the son of Samudragupta. He defeated the Sakas, and annexed Gujarat and Sourashtra. He was also known as Vikramaditya, which means ‘one who is equal to the Sun God in valour and strength’. It was during Chandragupta’s time that the Chinese Pilgrim Fa-Hien visited India, and wrote a detailed account on India. An Arab merchant Sulaiman and a Venetian traveler, Marco Polo, have both recorded that Chandragupta II was an ideal ruler.

              Theodosius was Roman Emperor from 378 to 395. He was the last emperor to rule over both the eastern and the western halves of the Roman Empire. He established Christianity as the state religion, and successfully defended it against paganism, and the religion known as Arianism. He founded a dynasty which ruled in the east and west until 450 and 455 respectively. Theodosius brought peace to the east with diplomacy, and defended this with a rebuilt military.

                Theodosius carried on a successful war with the Goths, whom he encouraged to become the allies of the Romans. The Eastern Empire was strengthened with the creation of separate military commands reporting directly to the Emperor. During his reign, Theodosius successfully fought two brutal civil wars against usurpers Maximus and Eugenius. As the defender of Christianity, Theodosius defeated pagan forces in 394. This is considered by many to be his greatest achievement. 

     Samudragupta (330-380 AD) was a great emperor belonging to the Gupta dynasty who ushered in the Golden Age in India. He was a benevolent ruler, a magnificent warrior, and a patron of arts. He was the son of Chandragupta I, and inherited a fairly small kingdom. However, once he came to the throne, Samudragupta began dramatically expanding his frontiers. He did not rest until he conquered almost the whole of India. His rule in fact, may be described as a vast military campaign. His territories extended from the Himalayas in the north, to the River Narbada in the south, and from the Brahmaputra River in the east, to the Yamuna River in the west. His greatest achievement can be described as the political unification of most of India.

               Samudragupta was not just a great general – he was a great human being too. He was compassionate towards those whom he defeated, and gave various tribal states autonomy under his protection. His court was full of poets and scholars. He had a keen interest in music and arts as well. Is it any wonder that he was known as both ‘the Napoleon of India’, and ‘the king of kings’? 

             Flavius Claudius Julianus, known to history as ‘Julian the Apostate’, was one of the most interesting Roman Emperors. He was the nephew of Constantine the Great, and was brought up as a Christian. However, he was educated in Greece, and this made him a supporter of the pagan religion of Hellenism, even though Christianity had been established as a major world religion. Julian attempted to stop the growth of Christianity, and to restore Hellenism through essentially non-violent means.

              Julian was also a skilful general. He took over the command of all Roman forces in Gaul, and carried raids across the Rhine River. He became emperor following the death of Constantine in 361. However, he was killed just two years later, fighting against the Persians. He will be remembered as a great general, a man of learning, and a fine writer, possessing many of the qualities of a wise and energetic ruler. 

             Marcus Aurelius Carus had an extensive and successful military career under the Emperor Probus. In 282 AD, when he was inspecting troops in preparation for Probus’ campaign against the Persians, the discontent of the soldiers with their emperor boiled over, and they hailed Carus the new ruler.

              During his short reign, Carus fought the Germanic tribes and Samaritans along the Danube frontier with success. He campaigned against the Sassanid Empire and sacked their capital, but died shortly thereafter.

          Constantine is perhaps best known for being the first Christian Roman emperor. Constantine defeated the emperors Maxentius and Licinius during civil wars. He also fought successfully against the Franks, Alamanni, Visigoths, and Sarmatians during his reign. He transformed the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium into a new imperial residence, Constantinople, which would be the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire for over 1000 years.

Continue reading “What is the Emperor Constantine best known for?”

                Diocletian was a Roman emperor at the end of the third century AD. He was chosen emperor by his troops on the 17th of September 284. In order to restore order in Gaul, and to prevent competition for the throne, he named his friend Maximian as coregent, and placed the western part of the empire under his rule.

                 Diocletian continued to directly govern the Asiatic part of the empire, and Egypt. He secured the state borders, and implemented a new territorial partition of the empire. He separated the military from civilian administration, and reconstructed the inner organization of the army and state bureaucracy. Diocletian took away from the Senate their former rights. Rome was no longer the capital. Then, in AD 293, Diocletian took another huge step into the unknown by founding the ‘Tetrarchy’, the rule of four. This new idea of imperial government meant that four emperors would rule the empire. But, this system eventually collapsed, leading to civil war. 

              Zhao Yun was an important commander of the civil wars of the late Han dynasty, and the Three Kingdoms period of China. For most of his career, Zhao Yun served the warlord Liu Bei, playing a part in the establishment of Shu Han.

                 In 192, Zhao Yun became a subordinate of Liu Bei, who was serving as a major under Gongsun Zan. Then later, when Liu Bei formed his own personal army, Zhao Yun was his right hand man, and followed him in his battles. In 208, Zhao Yun distinguished himself at the Battle of Changban against the forces of the powerful Cao Cao. After this battle, Zhao Yun single-handedly saved Liu Bei’s only infant son, slaying numerous enemy soldiers along the way.

                     After the Battle of Red Cliffs, Zhao Yun played a major role in conquering additional territories for Liu Bei. He gained fame as one of the five tiger generals of the Shu Kingdom – a term used to refer to the five best military generals serving under one ruler. 

         Aurelian was Roman emperor from 270-275 AD. He was the second in a succession of emperors who were originally soldiers. These ‘soldier-emperors’ helped the Roman Empire regain its power, which had waned considerably during the latter part of the third century, and towards the beginning of the fourth century.

             Aurelian was a highly regarded general, who saw action in many wars. One of his most noteworthy victories occurred in the year 268 AD, when he successfully fought back the well equipped and well trained Gothic cavalry force in the much celebrated Battle of Naissus. When the Emperor Claudius died, the army supported Aurelian as Emperor. At that time, external enemies from almost all sides threatened the Roman Empire. There was the constant threat of rebellious uprisings from within its own walls. The economic state of the empire was also quite bad at that time, with the agricultural and the commercial sectors in particular, suffering under the general political instability.

            One of the first acts Aurelian undertook was to recover the huge territories that the empire had lost in the previous years. After fifteen years of uprisings, and the devastating losses of Rome’s territories, it was under Aurelian’s rule, that the empire was finally fully united. History will forever remember Aurelian as the emperor, who brought an end to the crisis in Rome during the third century. 

             Sun Quan was the founder of Wu during the Three Kingdoms period in Ancient China. As a brilliant politician, he showed his talent at an early age, and followed his elder brother Sun Ce in battle when he was 14. After Sun Ce’s death, the 19 year-old Sun Quan succeeded his brother’s throne. Sun Quan promoted the development of the southeastern region. He kept diplomatic relations with surrounding countries such as India.

           Cao Cao was King of Wei, Prime Minister of the Han, and self styled warlord of the Three Kingdoms era of China. Modern historians view him as a brilliant politician and a skillful general.

            Cao was initially a minor garrison commander who rose to prominence as a general when he suppressed the Yellow Turban Rebellion. The Yellow Turbans were a Chinese secret society whose members’ uprising, called the Yellow Turban Rebellion threatened the last years of Han rule. The rebellion weakened the country, and is divided it into three kingdoms. Cao Cao took the emperor with him, and moved the capital to Xuxian. By invoking the emperor’s name, he took command of the other generals, and gradually assumed all imperial powers. His domain was known as the Kingdom of Wei.

            Cao became one of the most popular figures of Chinese legend and folklore, with various evil magic powers ascribed to him. 

          Lu Bu was a Chinese Han warlord, who lived during the Three Kingdoms period. He was a master of horse riding, archery, and armed combat. He was tall and strong, and because of his speed, skill and strength, he was nick-named ‘The Flying General’. He had a very fast moving horse called Red Hare.

          Lu Bu was appointed cavalry commander and Imperial corps commander by Dong Zhuo, a warlord from the Liang province. Dong Zhuo adopted Lu Bu as his son and, Lu Bu became Dong Zhuo’s closest bodyguard. However, in the end, he was responsible for Dong Zhuo’s death.

          Lu Bu was known to have no equal in battle, and was probably one of the greatest warriors to ever exist. His only love was war, and his only loyalty was to himself. He was finally executed by an enemy warlord, Cao Cao.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 Zhou Yu was a general of Wu of the Three Kingdoms of China over 1700 years ago. He was handsome, intelligent and a famous militarist and strategist. He served Sun Ce during the late Han Dynasty. After Sun Ce’s death, Cao Cao led a massive force southward. Zhou Yu defeated this force at the decisive Battle of Red Cliffs in 208. 

         Septimus Severus was the first of the soldier emperors of Ancient Rome. He rose improbably from the ranks of soldiers to become a military reformer. He was the first of the Severan emperors of Rome.

          Septimus Severus was born in Africa, at Leptis Magna, on April 11th, 145. He was of Carthaginian descent. Severus was a successful soldier, and when his predecessor, Emperor Commodus died, Severus’ troops proclaimed him emperor. Under Severus, Middle Eastern provinces were represented in the Senate for the first time. Severus died in Britain fighting the Caledonians, and was succeeded by his son, Caracalla.

           Decebalus was King of Dacia, which is today known as Romania. His name means ‘the brave one’. He was called by this name because he proved to be a formidable opponent to Rome for over 20 years.

           Decebalus ruled the Dacians between 87 and 106, and is famous for fighting three wars against the Roman Empire, and negotiating two peace treaties without being eliminated. Decebalus was shrewd both in his understanding of warfare, and in the waging of war. He judged well when to attack, and chose the right moment to retreat. He was an expert in ambushes, and a master in pitched battles, He knew not only how to follow up a victory well, but also how to manage well in defeat. He fought against the Roman Emperors Domitian and Trajan, and when he was finally defeated, he committed suicide. He is considered a national hero in Romania to this day. 

           Trajan was a soldier who spent most of his life involved in campaigns. He was adopted by the Roman Emperor Nerva, but even after Nerva died, Trajan remained in Germany until he had completed his campaign. Trajan’s eventual entry into Rome in AD 99 was a triumphant one. Jubilant crowds rejoiced at his arrival. The new emperor entered the city on foot. He embraced each of the Senators, and even walked among the ordinary people. Under Trajan, the programme of public works was enlarged substantially. The road network in Italy was renovated, and many bridges were built. Also provisions for the poor were also made, especially for children. Trajan was a brilliant general, as shown by his military achievements. Quite naturally, he was very popular with his troops, especially due to his willingness to share in the hardships of his soldiers.

          Trajan’s most famous campaign is undoubtedly that against Dacia, a powerful kingdom north of the Danube in modern Romania. Two wars were fought against it, resulting in its destruction and annexation as a Roman province in AD 106. He annexed Armenia, and spectacularly conquered the whole of Mesopotamia, including the Parthian capital Ctesiphon.

         Trajan died while returning to Italy from the east on 9th August AD 117, after suffering a stroke.  

                  Hadrian was a Roman emperor known for his many building projects. Hadrian spent most of his period in office travelling all over the empire. He is most famous for the wall that he built across Britain, from Tyne to Sol-way, designed to keep the barbarians out of Roman Britain. Hadrian was a capable administrator and a good soldier and leader, and is known as one of the ‘five good emperors’ of Rome. 

        Domitian was confirmed as emperor by the Roman Senate on September 14th, 81 AD. During the preceding twenty years, Rome had experienced two great fires, and a civil war. Domitian responded by erecting, restoring, or completing some 50 structures. In order to facilitate this recovery, the provinces were taxed more heavily. While Domitian raised taxes in most parts of the Empire, he also took aggressive steps to eliminate corruption and mismanagement.

          Rome was not seriously threatened by its enemies during Domitian’s reign. In 88-89 CE, there was a revolt in upper Germany. Domitian had the revolt quickly crushed, by using the legions of lower Germany.

          By the latter part of his reign, the Emperor had taken almost all power away from the Roman Senate. He became increasingly paranoid of plots and plans to remove him. In 96 AD, a real plot against Domitian finally did succeed. He died at age forty-four, and was the last emperor of his dynasty – the Flavian dynasty. 

               Germanicus was a popular imperial Roman general. He stifled a rebellion in the west on the death of Augustus in AD 14. Though urged to take imperial power, he deferred to Tiberius. In the East, he came into conflict with Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, governor of Syria. His death may have been due to poisoning ordered by Piso, though Tiberius was also suspected. He was immensely popular among the citizens of Rome. 

           Gnaeus Julius Agricola was a Roman statesman and soldier. He became governor of Britain, and conquered large areas of Northern England, Scotland and Wales. Agricola began his career as a military tribune. Later, he commanded a Roman legion in Britain, and in 78 AD, he was made governor of Britain.

            Agricola was successful in establishing Roman authority in North Wales. He then moved to Scotland, where he consolidated Roman military control and masterminded the building of a string of forts across the country from west to east. He confronted the Caledonian tribes under Calgacus at the Battle of Mons Graupius in 84 AD.

            Agricola was a successful soldier, and a political leader in Britain. Agricola died peacefully at his estate in Italy. Did you know that Agricola was the first Roman to realize that Britain was an island? 

         Vercingetorix was a Gallic leader. In fact, he was the best known, and most, able leader of the Gallic opposition to Caesar during the Gallic War of 58-51 BC. Vercingetorix became the leader of the great revolt against the Romans in 52 BC.

          Julius Caesar, upon hearing of the revolt, rushed to put it down. Vercingetorix adopted the policy of retreating to heavy, natural fortifications, and burning Gallic towns to keep the Roman soldiers from living off the land. Caesar and his chief lieutenant Labienus lost minor engagements, but when Vercingetorix shut himself up in Alesia and summoned all his Gallic allies to attack the besieging Romans, the true brilliance of Caesar appeared. He defeated the Gallic relieving force, and took the fortress. Vercingetorix was captured, and put to death.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           Arminius was a German leader who lived in the 1st century. He had lived in Rome for sometime, and understood Rome’s military strategy. When the Romans invaded German territory, Arminius, along with the leaders of the other German tribes, used this knowledge to defeat the Romans at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest.

           The first German leader of whom we have any record is Ariovistus, who was reigning in 58 BC, the year Julius Caesar entered Gaul. Ariovistus was the leader of a Germanic tribe, the Suebi, and he was constantly fighting with the Gauls, whom he defeated. The Romans considered him a ‘king and friend of the Senate’, but things changed when Gaul’s leaders asked Caesar for protection against King Ariovistus. The Gauls claimed he had brought in 120,000 Germans to settle on their lands, and had also taken hostages.

                 Caesar agreed to speak with Ariovistus but Ariovistus, refused this request. Caesar’s response was to tell him not to bring Germans into Gaul, and to restore hostages taken. However, Ariovistus, who had enjoyed military successes as impressive as Caesar’s, saw no reason to obey. Finally, Caesar attacked him at the Battle of Vosges in 58 BC. The Germans responded with vigour, but Roman tactics soon led to panic among them. As they fled, Caesar led the pursuit. Ariovistus managed to escape, but died not long afterwards. 

              Mark Antony was a Roman statesman and general. After Caesar defeated Pompey, Antony became Caesar’s second in command, and Caesar appointed him as Consul of Rome. On Caesar’s death, Antony joined with Caesar’s nephew Octavian to defeat the conspirators who had murdered Caesar. Later however, Octavian became his enemy when Antony married Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt. Octavian sent a fleet that destroyed the navy of Antony and Cleopatra, and Antony committed suicide. 

           Augustus Caesar’s real name was Gaius Octavius .He was the grand nephew of Julius Caesar. In his will, Caesar had adopted Octavius and made him his heir, so Octavius changed his name to Gaius Julius Caesar. Octavian was a shrewd, brilliant, and astute politician. Upon his grand uncle’s assassination in 44 BC, Octavius went to Rome. There, on August 19th, at the age of 19, Octavius was elected Consul.

            In November, Octavius, Mark Antony, and Aemilius Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate and forced the Senate to grant all three of them consular power for five years. Later, Antony left for Egypt, where he married the Queen Cleopatra, even though he was still married to Octavius’s sister in Rome. This outraged Octavius. He had already seized power from Lepidus, and he now defeated Antony and Cleopatra in a sea battle.             

            The world over which Rome presided was now in chaos. To meet this challenge, Octavian strengthened the military. From 31-23 BC, Octavian had himself elected Consul. In 27 BC, the Senate gave him the title of Augustus. From then on, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus – also known as the Emperor Augustus – ruled Rome until his death in 14 AD.

            In 60 BC, a young and ambitious general by the name of Julius Caesar stepped into political life. He had been very successful on the battlefield, and had greatly expanded Rome’s borders, bringing parts of Gaul and Britain under the control of Rome. He conquered enemies in Spain and Germany, and passed onto Greece. Caesar marched into Egypt also, where he notched up another victory.

             However, these victories made the Roman Senate fear that Caesar would use his army to over throw the republican government. In an attempt to protect this from happening, the Senate ordered Julius Caesar to return to Rome, but to leave his armies north of the Rubicon River.

             Caesar refused to do as he had been ordered. By crossing the Rubicon with his armies, he committed treason against the Senate, and in effect, declared civil war. Caesar eventually defeated opposing forces, and by 45 BC, had taken over control of the entire Roman Empire. Sadly, Caesar’s rule in Rome would be brief. The following year, in 44 BC, he was murdered by members of the Senate.

        Gnaeus Pompey was one of the key figures in the Roman revolution at the end of the period known as the Roman Republic. He rose to prominence serving Sulla in the first major Roman civil war, defeating the forces of Marius in Africa. Pompey quickly learned the political power of an army behind him. He led the Roman army against the rebels in Spain, and returned to Rome in triumph.

          In addition to his early successes, brutal though they are said to have been, Pompey was responsible for subduing the rebellious Spartacus and his army of slaves. This earned him the enmity of Crassus, who had already put down the main force of the slave revolt that had terrorized Italy. Pompey was awarded the task of ridding the pirates from the Mediterranean. He conquered Mithridates, King of Pontus, Tigranes, King of Armenia, and Antiochus, King of Syria, and went on to capture Jerusalem.

            Returning to Rome, Pompey formed a coalition with Julius Caesar and Crassus, called the First Triumvirate. Later on, however, Pompey led his forces in a civil war against Caesar. Pompey’s forces were defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC. Pompey himself sought the safety of Egypt, where he was murdered by order of the pharaoh’s ministers. 

           Spartacus was a Roman slave and gladiator, and leader of a famous slave revolt. He was sold into slavery, and trained at the gladiatorial school in Capua, north of Naples. He escaped in 73 BC, and took refuge on nearby Mount Vesuvius, where large numbers of other escaped slaves joined him. Leading his army of runaway slaves, which has been estimated to have reached 100,000 men, Spartacus defeated a series of Roman attacks using tactics which would now be called guerrilla warfare.

           In 72 BC, Spartacus and his army marched north towards Gaul. They fought off a series of attacks from Roman forces, but then turned south. The Roman politician and general Marcus Licinius Crassus led an army south, and in the battle that followed, Spartacus is believed to have been killed. Around 6,000 of his followers, who escaped, were hunted down and crucified. Thousands of others were killed by the army of the Roman general Pompey. Though his attempt to win freedom failed, Spartacus’s struggle has been an inspiration to revolutionaries, politicians, and writers to this day.

           Mithridates became king when he was only twelve, and so, it was his mother who actually wielded power. However, when he was seventeen, he had his mother imprisoned, and seized power. He also killed off several of his brothers to eliminate any competition for the throne!

            Mithridates invaded Bithynia, which was a Roman ally, and this brought him into conflict with Rome. Later, Roman general Sulla captured Athens, and defeated Mithridates at the Battle of Chaeronea in 86 BC. Mithridates fought three wars against the Romans. Eventually, he lost his kingdom, and died after being overthrown by one of his sons.

            Today, Mithridates VI is remembered as one of the Roman Republic’s most persistent enemies, though he won only one major battle.

             Cornelius Sulla came to prominence mainly in the Social War that was fought from 91-89 BC. When in 88 BC, Mithridates, King of Pontus, attacked the Roman province in Asia; the senate decided that Sulla, who was then one of the current consuls, would be commander of the army against Mithridates. After successfully completing his campaign against Mithridates, Sulla returned to Italy, marched to Rome, and took charge politically by force, as a dictator.

             Sulla introduced a new judicial device called ‘proscription’. This meant, the publication of lists of any people he deemed undesirable. Rewards would be made to those who brought them in, be they dead or alive. It goes without saying that Sulla used this device in order to wipe out any political opposition. He introduced a law by which, any new member to be admitted to the Senate had to have at least to have had some experience in an official position. Sulla created new courts for particular types of crime. Only Senators could sit as judges, and this strengthened the Senate. Unusually for a tyrant, Sulla retired in 79 BC.

            Gaius Marius was a Roman general and politician. He was a strong and brave soldier, and a skilful general, popular with his troops, but he showed little flair for politics, and was not a good public speaker.

            Gaius was given command of the Roman army in Africa. In recruiting fresh troops, Marius broke with custom, because of a manpower shortage. He recruited volunteers from outside the propertied classes. This was a bold step because till then, only those who owned property could serve in the army. Gaius’ victory in Africa got him elected consul again-he was consul seven times- but he soon had to go to war once more. This time, he showed his foresight by ensuring that his men were excellently trained in commando tactics by gladiatorial instructors. There is no doubt that Gaius’ military reforms and great command led to the growing involvement of the army in politics, and the eventual collapse of the republican system.

            Publius Cornelius Scipio was born into one of the great aristocratic families of Rome. Even as a boy, he proved his bravery when, seeing his father wounded and cut off by the enemy during a battle, he charged forward, and saved him. Scipio began his career as a military tribune. In 210, the Romans decided to send an army to Spain against the Carthaginians, but it is said that no senior general would undertake the task, and that young Scipio offered himself as a candidate. He was determined to hold the Carthaginian armies at bay, and prevent them from sending reinforcements to Hannibal in Italy. He was also determined to turn back the tide of war, and to drive the enemy out of the Peninsula.

            Scipio first defeated the Carthaginian commander Hasdrubal Barca in Spain, and then the other two Carthaginian armies still there, making Roman control of Spain complete. However, his greatest achievement was undoubtedly his victory over the Carthaginian leader Hannibal in the great Battle of Zama in Africa, in 202 BC, ending the Second Punic War. For this he won the surname Africanus.

          Philip V was one of the last great Macedonian sovereigns ruling from 221 to 179, whose attempt to extend Macedonian influence throughout Greece, resulted in his defeat by Rome.

          Philip became king when his father died in 229 BC. He was just nine years old then, and real power lay in the hands of his cousin, Antigonus Dosun, the regent. Antigonus later declared himself to be the king but he died when Philip was just seventeen. So in effect, Philip became king only in 221.

           Philip’s reign witnessed an expansion of Macedonian power, but it also saw an even greater expansion of the power of Rome. During his reign he was preoccupied with the vain struggle to maintain the old Macedonian supremacy in the Balkan Peninsula, which became hopeless after the intervention of Rome and the decisive Battle of Cynoscephalae.

           Philip devoted the last decade of his life to consolidating his kingdom. He reorganized finances, transplanted, populations, reopened mines, and issued central and local currencies. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Perseus who ruled as the last king of Macedon. 

            Han Xin was a very famous general who lived around two centuries before Christ at a time when China’s first empire, Qin was on the verge of collapsing, because of peasant uprisings. He came from a poor family, but he studied hard and became familiar with military strategy and tactics. In 209 BC, rebellions broke out everywhere in China. Han Xin went to join the rebel army of Xiang Liang, who founded the nation of West Chu. After Xiang Liang was killed in a battle, his nephew Xiang Yu became the ruler of West Chu. However, Han Xin felt he was not being treated well, and left Xiang Liang’s army to join another rebel army called Han under Lord Liu Bang. It was here that Han Xin soon proved that he had a rare military talent.

            In May of 206 BC, the Han army won a major victory against Lord Zhang Han’s army. This was followed by a series of victories. What is amazing is that Han Xin started as a lowly guard for Xiang Liang, and became a general under Liu Bang. Moreover, he achieved outstanding victories repeatedly within just a few years. He was the major figure in deciding the outcome of the war between Han and its enemies, and was praised as an all-powerful military leader and brilliant strategist.

            Antiochus III was barely 19 when he became king of Seleucia. By a show of force, and skilful diplomacy, he formed alliances with neighbouring rulers. Once he had his neighbours under his control, Antiochus then turned his attention to Western territories and formed an alliance with Philip V of Macedon against Egypt. In 200 BC, he defeated the Egyptian forces, and claimed control of Palestine and Phoenicia.

            Pressing his military advantage, Antiochus invaded Egypt itself, forcing a peace treaty. But Antiochus did not rest on that victory. He later led his forces to regain the cities of Western Asia Minor that his father had lost. Not content with having extended Seleucia’s control over more territory than any of his predecessors, he crossed into Europe, but was defeated by the Romans and the allies.

           By 264 BC, Rome was a force to be reckoned with. The only power in the region that could match that of the Romans was Carthage. Hannibal was a young Carthaginian general who won most of his battles by coming up with clever ideas. Once, while fighting at sea, Hannibal had his men dump barrels full of live snakes onto the deck of an enemy ship. The enemy had not expected Hannibal to do this. They weren’t prepared to fight snakes. Hannibal won that battle easily.

            In 221 BC, Hannibal tried to attack Rome. Hannibal’s plan was to march 90,000 foot soldiers, 12,000 cavalry, and 37 elephants from Spain, through Gaul, over the Alps, into Italy, and then take Rome by force.

Continue reading “Why Hannibal is considered one of the greatest warriors of all time?”

Hamilcar Barca was a daring, intelligent young Carthaginian general He was assigned the command in Sicily in 247 in the First Punic War. From mountain bases he made repeated raids on the Romans. However, the Carthaginians were defeated, and Hamilcar Barca negotiated the terms of the peace that led to Carthage’s withdrawal from Sicily. Later, the Carthaginian mercenaries revolted, but Hamilcar defeated them in 238. After that his popularity made him a virtual dictator. He then set out to conquer Spain as a new base against Rome, and had won considerable territory when he died. Hamilcar was probably the ablest general and statesman that Carthage ever had, until he was succeeded by his son, Hannibal.

              Quintas Fabius Maximus was a Roman commander and politician during the Second Punic War. He knew from the reports of Roman commanders in the field that it would be difficult to defeat Rome’s arch enemy Hannibal, in open battle. So, Fabius decided to fight a war of delaying tactics. He dispatched various Roman forces into the hills of Italy to tail Hannibal as closely as possible, without engaging him in battle, knowing that the cavalry would be useless in the hills. These troops constantly cut of Hannibal’s supply lines, and harassed him incessantly and without mercy. Although these tactics were unpopular, and viewed as cowardly, they worked. Fabius would make his first and only offensive move of the war in 209 during his fifth consulship, when he captured the city of Tarentum, which Hannibal had captured three years before.

                Fabius cautious delaying tactics won him the nickname Cunctator, meaning ‘delayer’. He was also called ‘the shield of Rome’, because his tactics gave Rome time to recover its strength, and take the offensive against the invading Carthaginian army of Hannibal. Today, the word Fabianism has come to mean a gradual or cautious policy. 

        Hammurabi was an ancient Babylonian king. He was the sixth king of Babylon, but expanded it by uniting cities. He therefore became the first king of the empire. He first conquered cities towards the south, and then his conquest expanded. He respected all the religions in his empire, and did many things in order to make Babylon a better place.

          Hammurabi is best remembered because he did something that no one had ever done before. Using a form of written language known as cuneiform, Hammurabi created the first written set of laws called the Code of Hammurabi. In Hammurabi’s court, it did not matter if you were rich or poor. If you broke the law, and were found guilty, you would be punished. Since the laws were clearly written down, everyone was expected to obey them.

             Under Hammurabi, the Babylonian Empire was very strong, but under his children and grandchildren, the empire got weaker, until eventually it collapsed like other West Asian empires.

        Sargon the Great was the ruler of the Akkadians, who conquered the land between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers around 2300 BC. According to legend, Sargon’s mother was a princess, and his father a poor gardener. His mother abandoned him, and put him in a reed basket which she then set float on the river. However, he was rescued by a gardener named Akki, and he became a favourite of the Goddess Ishtar.

         With the goddess’s blessings, he came to the court of the king. In time, he built himself a new city at Akkad, and made himself its king. He gradually conquered all the land around him. In this way, he built the first empire that we know of the Akkadian Empire. His empire was great indeed, extending throughout Mesopotamia. He sent expeditions into Asia Minor and Southeast Arabia, with varying degrees of success. In the process, he spread not only the military wisdom of his army but also the cultural wisdom of Sumeria, the civilization that he conquered. Sargon ruled for 35 more years, until his death in 2305. But the fact is that he lived so long ago that most of what we know about him is based on legend.