Category English Language

What has bestselling author Dan Brown got to do with it? Read on to find out.

The term cryptex was coined by author Dan Brown in his bestselling novel The Da Vinci Code. It is a combination of the words 'cryptology which is the science of secret writing' and 'codex which means 'manuscript of ancient text.

In the book, the cryptex is depicted as a portable vault in the form of a sealed stone cylinder having rotating discs of marble stacked on each other. Each disc has 26 letters of the alphabet carved on it. The discs have to be aligned to spell a five-letter password to unlock the cryptex, which contains a thin papyrus scroll carrying the secret message. The scroll is wrapped around a delicate glass vial containing vinegar. If someone tries to open the cryptex by force, the vial breaks and the vinegar dissolves the papyrus before it is read.

Although cryptexes originated in fiction, they have quickly become a part of the real world thanks to artists who hold a fascination for puzzles and ciphers. Nowadays, different kinds of cryptexes are made and sold, some of them even customised to suit the buyer's needs.

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We know that the English language has parts of speech-like nouns verbs, adjectives and so on. You’ve probably learnt about them in grammar class.

But there are other fun groups too that words are classified into, in the language Have you heard of these?

Dolch and Fry Words

In 1936, linguist Edwart William Dolch created a list of 95 nouns that were commonly used in writing. He said that students should memorise these Sight words as whole words and not break them down. For example: “Answer” not aun-ser”.

Dolch also has a 220-word list without nouns. The theory was that if children could easily recognise these common words and read them, they could achieve reading fluency.

Based on this sight theory, in 1957, Edward Fry took words from “American Heritage Word Frequency Book” and created another group of high-frequency words. He ranked them according to how many times they occur in textbooks in classes 3-9. This list has all the parts of speech, and was revised in 1980.

These two lists are used in primary schools and help children become fluent speakers. Many of us have learnt English by simply memorising whole words! We read well, but our pronunciation may have been rather shaky because we memorised the words without worrying about their sounds. Today, you have audio to help you with pronunciation. Just practise!

Portmanteau words

Portmanteaus (or portmanteaux) are words that combine the sounds and meanings of two words. You know “brunch” is a combo of breakfast and lunch. right? And “motel” combines motor and hotel.

“Portmanteau” is a French word meaning “a large leather travelling bag” that opens into two equal parts – a special compartment for hanging clothing (suits) and a normal one for folded clothes and other stuff Makes sense to use it for a word that blends the sounds and meanings of two words! “Podcast” is a portmanteau (or blend), a made-up word from iPod and broadcast.

The word portmanteau has Latin origins, from portare, meaning a cloak. Over time, the word changed to include both suitcase and a language blend.

Surprisingly, it first appeared in a children’s book “Alice Through the Looking Glass” and was introduced by a talking egg!

In the story, Alice asks Humpty Dumpty to explain the nonsensical Jabberwocky poem. What do the words slithy’ and ‘mimsy’ mean, she asks. Humpty Dumpty replies: “Well, “slithy” means “lithe and slimy” You see it’s like a portmanteau there are two meanings packed up into one word.” “Mimsy” is flimsy and miserable”

So, if a friend tell you: “Let’s go glamping!”, do agree! Glamping is glamorous+camping, and was coined by fashion magazine Vogue in October 2011.

Today, there are numerous portmanteaus in English. Smoke + fog – smog. Jeans + leggings = jeggings, breath + analyser – breathalyzer, Obama + healthcare -Obamacare.

Try creating portmanteaus, and hold a class competition for original ones!

Crazy words

Shakespeare is supposed to have created “crazy words. “Hurry” and “zany” are common words today, but were thought of as odd in his time! People make up CTRZY sounding words all the time! Try this: Do you bloviate and carry a bumbershoot with you while your lollygag? Got you!

More weird words:

Bumfuzle or dumfoozle: To confuse, perplex

Cattywampus: in disarray, not directly across from something.

Bumbershoot: Umbrella

Lollygag: Surfaced around 1868. A “lollygag” is someone who is messing around wasting time

Bloviate: This refers to people who talk for a long period of time, who inflate their story to make themselves sound better.

Flibbertigibbet: Someone silly, doesn’t do anything serious. Maria, in the film Sound of Music was called this!

Unique words:

Syzygy: The only English word with three Ys. Refers to the alignment of three celestial bodies in a straight line.

Dreamt: The only verb to end with-mt.

Hydroxyzine: Only one word in all of English that has an X Y, and z in order.

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Have you watched the movie “My Big Fat Greek Wedding”? The movie is themed around a clash between two cultures. A young Greek woman from a conservative family wants to marry a man from an upper-middle-class American family. The woman, Toula, brings her fiancé lan, home for dinner and the entire family gathers to meet him.

At one point, Toula introduces him to her aunt, telling her he is vegetarian. The aunt asks what that means, and when lan says he doesn’t eat meat, she says in shock, “What do you mean you don’t eat no meat?” She stares at him for a few seconds and then she smiles, pats him on the shoulder, and says, “That’s OK, that’s OK, I make lamb.” Obviously, for the aunt, lamb is vegetarian. It eats grass, right?

The movie was released in 2002. Today, the Greek aunt would have other choices for “meat” that are vegetarian. And lan would be happy eating those dishes.

We now have meatless chicken nuggets, tofu hot dogs, and burgers that have fake “bleeding” with beetroot juice. It is the same with milk: food store shelves now stock coconut milk, cotton-seed milk, badam milk and milk from many other nuts. Products like these raise a question: what do we call these new breed of “meatless” meat items?

Can we call food items “meat” or “milk” if they don’t come from animals?

What does the word ‘meat actually mean?

In Old English, meat meant food in general. The word has roots in ancient German, and originally, meat wasn’t about animal vs. vegetable, but solid food vs. drink.

 By 1300, meat began to take on a narrower meaning. It was understood as “the flesh of animals used for food” or “the edible part of anything, as a fruit or nut”, as in “the meat in coconut.”

Legal definition

Legally, meat has a much more specific meaning. In 1946, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) defined meat in the Agricultural Marketing Act.

This said: “… the edible part of the muscle of an animal which is skeletal or which is found in the tongue, in the diaphragm, in the heart, or in the oesophagus, and which is intended for human food, with or without the accompanying and overlying fat and the portions of bone skin, sinew, nerve, and blood vessels which normally accompany the muscle tissue and which are not separated from it in the process of dressing.”

Phew! That definition was updated in 1994 to include meat products “derived from advanced meat/bone separation machinery, which is comparable in appearance, texture, and composition to meat trimmings and similar meat products derived by hand.”

What about milk and fish?

So, the word “meat” should refer to flesh prepared from live animals.” Fine. But what about fish and other animals from the sea? We don’t call them “meat”, do we?

And what about milk? In 2017, a group of dairy farmers went to court saying the term “almond milk” was misleading and that almond extract should not be called milk.

Milk, after all, they said, means “an opaque white or bluish liquid secreted by the mammary glands of a female mammal, serving for the nourishment of their young.” Like meat, milk is a word recorded in Old English and passed down from an ancient Germanic root.

Ah, but the dairy farmers lost the case. They appealed to a higher court. The US Court of Appeals ruled that calling almond milk “milk” is not cheating. Come on, they said, “no reasonable consumer could be misled by unambiguous labelling or factually accurate nutrition statements.”

So now we have plenty of plant-based milks: oat milk and hemp milk are on supermarket shelves.

 In European Courts there is agreement that consumers might be confused when plant-based foods are called “meat” or “milk.” In 2017, the European Court of Justice ruled that plant-based foods cannot carry the names butter, milk, or cheese. In 2018, France passed legislation in Parliament prohibiting specific labels, such as steak, from being applied to plant-based foods (for instance, “soy steak”). “Such names can be misleading,” said the MPs.

Rise of veganism

From around the 2000s, there has been a rise in the number of people turning to vegetarianism and veganism. Plant – based “meat” products became popular. Now, we have all kinds of fake meat products that have no meat. There is also laboratory-grown meat or “clean” meat.

“Don’t call it meat if it is not from animals!” say those who raise animals for meat. “If it is not from animals, it is not meat. The use the word “meat” to describe burgers and sausages that are made from plant-based ingredients or are grown in labs is illegal,” they say.

In 2018, Missouri in the United States became the first state to pass a law banning the use of the word meat on any plant- or lab-based meat alternatives.

Misleading or not?

Would you think that “soy steak” or “chick-pea burger” are foods derived from animals? Most people wouldn’t. Will the new, meat-free meat products get new names? Not likely. The whole point of selling these food items is to say that they look and taste the same, but have no meat in them. And buyers want them because they are looking for such products.

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One of the things that help you write better is to know and use a lot of words. Take verbs for example. We don’t just use the word “walk” for all the different ways of walking, right?

You can amble, stroll, saunter, perambulate or stride. And I am sure that there are even more words that mean “walk”. So we use different words for different situations, though the action is always walking.

One exercise we routinely did in our classroom was to allot an area on one side of the blackboard to write synonyms for a chosen word that day. A popular word for this exercise was the noun “song.” Do you know other words for “song”? Ditty, lay, tune, number, ballad are some of them. Today, we will do this exercise with the word “happiness.” The dictionary defines the word “happiness” as “pleasure derived from attaining what you consider to be good.” The word has its roots in the Old Norse “happ”, which means “chance” or “good luck.” That makes sense – maybe happiness is a matter of luck?

“Happiness” as a noun entered the English language in the 16th century, but the adjective “happy” had been around for around 200 years before that

So what are the synonyms for “happiness”?

Exultation

Exultation is “lively or triumphant joy, generally over success or victory.” It comes from the Latin “exultationem” and has been used in English since the 1400s. Exultation is what we felt when India recently beat Australia in the fourth and final Test in Brisbane.

Jubilation

Jubilation is “a feeling or loud expression of joy, or a festive celebration.” This term entered English in the late 1300s from the Latin meaning “shouting for joy.” Cliff Richard has used this word very well in his popular song “Congratulations.”

Congratulations and celebrations When I tell everyone that you’re in

love with me

Congratulations and jubilations I want the world to know I’m happy as can be

The word has also been immortalised in Simon and Garfunkel’s song Cecilia: “Jubilation!

She loves me again; I fall on the floor and I’m laughing.”

Rapture

Rapture is “ecstatic delight or joyful ecstasy.” It comes from the Latin “raptura” meaning “abduction,” “carrying away”. But these are not situations to be happy about!

Over the years, the meaning changed and people took it to mean “carrying of a person to another sphere of existence”. In Christian theology, the Rapture’ will happen when Christ returns to earth.

Bliss

Bliss is “supreme happiness, often associated with the joy of heaven.” It comes from the Old English “blis” and is related to the terms bless and blithe. These lines from Wordsworth’s poem “Daffodils” bring out the meaning beautifully:

For oft, when on my couch I lie In vacant or in pensive mood,

They flash upon that inward eye Which is the bliss of solitude;

And then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the daffodils

Elation

Elation is “a feeling of great joy or pride, or of exultant gladness.” In Middle English “elat” meant “proud.” The rd travelled from Latin, and reached English through old French.

Elation is what you feel when Kohli hits a century and India wins an ODI cricket match against Australia in the last over.

Glee

Glee is “open delight or pleasure.” This term, strangely, has musical associations. At one time, the noun glee was allowed to be used to refer to entertainment of the harmonious variety. In the 17th century, people began to use the word “delight” in the place of “glee”.

The word “glee” became obsolete or was used to mean “comic and this was published in dictionaries by editors. Then miraculously, “glee“ re-emerged in common usage in the late 18th century. Equally strangely, glee is now associated with taking pleasure at someone’s discomfort. For example: “He gleefully admitted that he had complained about his neighbour.”

Joviality

Joviality, according to the dictionary, is a state of hearty, joyous humour celebrating the spirit of good fellowship. The word comes from the Latin “lovints”, meaning “of or pertaining to Jupiter,” the Roman god of the sky. Was Jupiter a happy guy? Maybe!

Euphoria

Since 1727, it has been a physician’s term for “condition of feeling healthy and comfortable (especially when sick),” It is a Latin medical term from the Greek “euphoria” meaning “power of enduring easily,” which is from “euphoros”. meaning “bearing well” from “eu”, meaning “well” + “pherein” meaning “to carry”.

Some medicines create a sense of euphoria. This term has existed in English since the late 1600s. Of course, all of us can be euphoric when we are extremely happy about something.

Felicity

Felicity is “the state of being happy, especially in a high degree.” It’s taken from the Latin root, “felix”, meaning “happy, fortunate, fruitful, fertile.”

It is associated with the Roman sentiment that “what produces more crops produces more happiness.”

Let me add here: Both men and cats are given the name Felix.

Gaiety

Gaiety is “a state of being vivacious and cheerful.” It is from the old French “gai”, meaning “joyful, agreeably charming, forward, pert.” Gaiety is what you see when a group of people are enjoying themselves at a party, a festival or a family function. For instance: Diwali was celebrated with a lot of fervour and gaiety.

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One of the questions we answer all our school classes is “Read the passage below and answer questions that follow.” This passage is often described as “unseen”.

That is not correct since sensor probably your teacher-has seen it right A more accurate way of describing it is familiar. Can you think of other more appropriate ways of labelling the passage?

Examining the unknown

Answering questions on a passage that you have not read before is an interesting activity

In the tense examination hall, reading a passage gives you a breather. It helps you concentrate, and if you are a regular reader, it gives you a few moments of enjoyment. And if the passage is well-chosen, say, it is a story or about a fun subject it can help you de-stress and make the writing task lighter. Do you enjoy reading these unfamiliar passages?

But then, there is the end task of writing the answers. This is no big Heal since you have the text in front of you!

Still sometimes the questions can be tricky or finding the answer may take time.

First, read

Some students prefer to read the questions before reading the passage. Fine. But a better method would be to read the passage quickly first. This is for a “global” understanding of the passage.

What is it about? Is it just about facts (for example, the description of a city) or about opinions? (for instance, ‘digital technology has made us happy people’). What is the main argument in the passage?

Then, read again

Read it a second time. This is called “local” reading. This time absorb the facts and arguments. Where do you find them – in the first, – second or the third paragraph? What are the main points made by the author?

Which are the “yes” statements and which say “no”? (Yes: When the country develops we need more electricity to run our businesses and industries. No: We cannot build power plants endlessly without endangering lives and damaging the environment. Instead we should reduce our power needs and save power for essential services.)

Peruse the questions

Read the questions at the end of the passage carefully. What is asked? Often the options in multiple-choice answers resemble one another. Read carefully, sometimes just a word can make a difference in the answer.

Stay aware!

Watch out for questions like, “Which of the following is opposite to the ideas presented by the author?” OR “Which of these will make climate change worse?” [a] A [b] B & C] [c] All of the above [d] None of the above. Here, the answer will be [a], [b], [C] or [d]. Not A, B, C, D. To find the right answer, read the passage quickly to absorb what is said.

Understanding is key

Sometimes vocabulary questions ask you to find the meaning of the word as used in the passage. Make sure you understand how the word is used in the passage. For example, The company pushed its goods through aggressive marketing. “Pushed” here means “promoted.”

Stick to facts

Remember, the questions should be answered with the information in the passage. Your opinion does not count. So stick to what the author says.

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“Making mistakes while writing is part of the learning process.” said Keng Lee, knowledge adventurer & technology explorer in self directed learning. “But what is critically important is getting regular and constructive feedback, either from your [knowledgeable] friends or your English teacher or tutor.”

Read, and read some more

My mantra for writing without errors has always been this: Read, read and read. Read good, well-written books, standard newspapers, novels, magazine articles and editorials. Read commentaries, analytical pieces of writing (such as: What are the consequences of global warming?’).

Read daily and widely. As you read, pick articles written by people who write well, without errors. Reading widely helps you to know what the correct words and phrases are for the context. (Consider this: Do we deny the disease or prevent it?). You learn how great writers use the language to make their meaning dear. You learn how to write concisely and directly, without wasting words. Most of all, reading well-written passages helps us develop our own style.

Strive to stand out

It is a good idea to remember this: Writing well needs discipline, imagination, and some degree of writing skill, knowledge of the mechanics of writing (how to organise adverbs/adjectives, how to place verbs, punctuations marks) and an easy style to connect with the readers.

People now have a huge amount of reading choice. Will your writing stand out so that they pick yours to read? For that to happen, go through the following tips.

Avoid spelling errors

Does correct spelling matter? Yes. Poor spelling gives the impression that you are careless about your work. Bad spelling will lead to your being misunderstood. Imagine a job application with spelling errors. You certainly won’t get a teacher’s job! You may have great ideas, interesting stories, but these will fall flat if they are told with errors in writing.

Errors distract the reader. So take time to proofread your work before you hit the “send” button. You can use the spellcheck, but beware. Spellcheck applications do not spot contextual errors. They may not spot this error: “It is possible you’re not listed in this classroom.”

Avoid grammar errors

What are grammatical errors? The major one will be a lack of agreement of the verb with the subject. Traffic in these by-lanes are blocked by parked cars. It should be “Traffi..is.”. Other errors can be wrong prepositions, wrong usage of words, apostrophe misuse, poor sentence construction, inconsistency in tenses or switching active-passive verbs without making other changes.

Sure, no one can know all the rules of grammar, but we all should be able to form simple sentences without basic grammatical errors. Poor grammar confuses the reader. Reading good authors will help you form well-structured, easy-to-follow sentences.

Write your thoughts down whenever you can

This is a habit that will help you write with ease. Writing your thoughts at least once a day improves your vocabulary. The simplest form of this exercise is to describe your surroundings wherever you find yourself – in the Metro (for instance: What could be that young woman’s job?), at the bus stand, at the doctor’s office, in the courtyard of your school.

Just answer the ‘5 Ws and the H’ (when, who, what, why, where and how) and add your imagination to it. You already have a descriptive essay with you! See that your mind is filled with questions and answers and find time to write down at least a few of them.

Read aloud to a friendly audience

Two things will happen when you read your finished essay to someone who cares. If you keep stumbling over words when you read, it’s clear your words are not arranged well. Are you switching from active to passive voice often? Are your sentences left incomplete? Is your word-order difficult to follow? All these issues can be sorted out when you read your work aloud. The second benefit is the constructive criticism you will get. Your audience will tell you if they can follow the story and can ask you to make a few changes in the story or the narrative style. Were they able to guess the ending straight away or did they find the suspense gripping? Did they appreciate your descriptive passages? Did they find your arguments valid? In sci-fi, are your assumptions of the future logical?

Such criticism will help you improve your writing. Do not hesitate to make the suggested changes if you find them appropriate.

Proofread

Never, ever submit your work without going over it with a fine tooth-comb. Check for spelling, for grammar slip-ups. See if the sentences are made well, there are no run-ons (sentences that go on and on). Have you got your punctuation right? Are full-stops close to the last letter of the sentence? Yes, the English language is complicated, but all your reading has prepared you to write your thoughts in a simple, lucid manner, hasn’t it?

Writing without errors comes ahead of writing well. Make it a habit to write error-free prose. Whether a WhatsApp message, blog post, email or a simple note, write without errors. Be conscious about this. Say what you want to say politely and unambiguously.

Make your writing neat and clear

So many businesses have been lost because the selling company could not write a neat, clear proposal. Error-free writing often stands between you and getting a good job. Once you have that eye for detecting errors and correcting them at once, go ahead and develop your own style of writing.

Error free writing is the foundation on which we build the edifice of a passage, essay, short story or a novel.

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Social media platforms have changed the way we communicate in one big way: we now cannot write without abbreviations and emojis. We have embraced them passionately because they are brief, and convey emotions crisply and efficiently. Our abundant use of abbreviations has made people refer to social media messaging as an ‘alphabet soup’. What do we know about the various abbreviations and acronyms used?

What they are

An abbreviation is an umbrella term. Abbreviations are shortened forms of words and phrases. Mrs., Dr., Rlys. are all examples of abbreviations. [Just drop the vowels!)

Acronyms are types of abbreviations. They are made by taking the first letters of the words involved and making a word out of them. These ‘initialisms’ may be pronounced as proper words, but are written in the upper case. Examples are: WHO, UNESCO, RADAR.

Is noob (internet-speak for “newbie”) an abbreviation or an acronym? You decide!

TL; DR

Tl;dr stands for “too long: didn’t read.”

According to one report, tl;dr was originally an insult an expression of annoyance. It was used as a reaction to a post, comment or content that the reader found long winded and wordy. It meant, “This is way too long, so I didn’t read it.” By 2005, tl;dr had taken on a second meaning: it was short for “summary.” People began to send a “tl;dr version” of longer accounts or articles. Tl;dr can be a genuine summary of a much longer piece.

You could call it a gist the big takeaway or the moral of the story. Tl;dr can also be a simpler, sarcastic interpretation of an essay on a complex topic It is the essence of the piece. Try writing the Tl;dr version of something you want to say. You will get more people to read what you write.

H/T

There was a time when men never went out without wearing a hat. When they met people they knew in the streets, hat-wearing men tipped the brim of the hat a little bit, as a mark of recognition (Hello!) or respect (Morning, Sir!). You can’t wear a hat on social media, but you still want to show respect. So you use the acronym H/T (with or without the diagonal slash). It means hat tip, or tipping the hat.

When we attach H/T to a meme, expression, image, or idea on social media, we acknowledge the original source of that post. When you forward a quote, you say, “H/T to XXX.” You can also thank people – “H/T YYY for the gift.”

LBS

LBS can be wielded to convey an emotion via text and social media. LBS stands for “laughing but serious.” Placed at the end of a text, it tells readers that you are not hurt by what has been said, you don’t take yourself seriously, but will consider the substance of the post/text. A lot is said with these few letters of the alphabet!

IMHO

This is a familiar one, right? You’ve seen IMHO (in my humble opinion) in texting, email and social media. It was first used in the 1980s in online forums. After a while some people began to interpret IMHO as “In my honest opinion.” Now more people understand the “H” as “honest.” Fine! You are probably saying that you believe in what you say.

MUA

I suspect MUA (make-up artist) gained traction with the increasing number of make-up videos that are appearing on YouTube. And they are watched by millions! The minute you see the letters MUA, the artist believes, you will want to click on it. And his/her video gets an eyeball. MUAs get huge responses on Instagram and YouTube. Videos by MUAs tell you of the artist’s techniques about how to make you look better.

SWAG

I always thought SWAG was a regular English word, but it turns out it is an acronym. It stands for “stuff we all get.” and it usually refers to freebies given for promoting a product. If someone trying to sell you the latest mobile phone adds SWAG at the bottom, you’ll definitely want to click on it right? SWAG is a direct outcome of our buying tendencies – no freebie, no buy! There is your next acronym – NFNB, how about it?

WYD and WTP

WYD is a texting and internet acronym for “What (are) you doing?” Friends say it can also mean “What (would) you do?” Like a lot of acronyms, it started as a literal question – “What are you doing at the moment?” Then texters found out that it can be a substitute for “What’s up, buddy?” an informal greeting. Now, it has taken shades of meaning, like. “Hey, what are you doing? Are you sure that’s right? I don’t think I approve! Stop it!” I saw one that went “If you don’t support your best friend when she’s sad, then wyd?” [it is a rhetorical question, meaning, “You are not doing much.”) WTP too asks a question: “What’s the plan?” or “What’s the play?” when you want to confirm a programme for the day/evening/ weekend. Type out WTP and you get your response. Great!

HMU

The abbreviation HMU stands for a slightly complicated “hit me up.” Again, it gives us an idea of what young people feel at the moment. HMU is posted to announce that the texter is looking for something to do. He/she is bored, lonely and is looking for social interaction. It is a call for people to reach out to him/ her. It is generally a one-on one exchange, where it becomes an invitation for continued interaction. It means “text me,” or “call me,” or simply “let’s talk again.” HMU can also stand for “hook me up,” which is typically a request to be connected with someone or something in which you have an interest.

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A student just spoke to me. She said. “Madam, like, I, um, as I said before, I wanted to say this, but like….”. I stopped her. I said. “What do you want to say? Form a short sentence about it in your mind and say it.”

We often use words that mean nothing at all. Speaking/writing meaningless words wastes the listeners or the reader’s time. Few people have the patience to plough through the “likes” and “ums”, the “as you knows” and the “as I said befores”. Your examiner may even see this as a ploy to fill the page. He/she cannot be asked to wade through unnecessary words and pick the right ones.

When we use extra words and unnecessarily longer expressions, we confuse the reader. It is best to say what we want to say in a few well-chosen words. Unnecessary words are those that do not add to the meaning of what you say: they dilute your opinions and arguments: they annoy the reader/listener. While using superfluous words might be forgiveable when speaking, it is not so when you are writing.

A word which adds nothing extra to a sentence is called a pleonasm. Example: “We joined the wires together.” Which word can be dropped here? [Answer: “together.” Join means putting together.]

A word which merely repeats the meaning of another word in an expression is called a tautology. Pleonasm and Tautology refer to words that can be omitted. Example: DVD disc. [Omit “disc’].

Completely surrounded, completely destroyed, completely filled, completely opposite, completely finished – the modifier “completely” is redundant in all these verbs. When something is destroyed, finished, filled or surrounded, it is completely so. And opposites are not diametrically so. So the expression “completely opposite” doesn’t mean anything.

Superfluous speech

The magazine “India Today” once came up with phrases that are redundant – words that are repeated and not necessary to convey your thoughts. One that jumps to mind is the expression free gift” Isn’t a gift free, given with affection? There is no gift for which you pay. If you pay for something, then it is not a gift. So what is a free gift? Just say, “gift.”

Then there is “general public.” What is the word “general” doing here? “Public” means people in general. If you say “general public”, you are saying “general, general people.” This is unnecessary. Instead, say: “The public wants to know the amount spent on restoring the lake.”

Watch what you say!

Ah, and this unbearable phrase “first and foremost.” If something is foremost”, it is clearly in the first position. Example: “There are many reasons for fevers increasing in the rainy season: the foremost among them is water stagnation.” OR “First, let me give you the good news.” not “First and foremost let me give you the good news.

Have you ever said to friends/family. “I have/I want the exact same dress!” if you do, stop saying that. “Same” means “exact. If the two are not the same, we would say, “similar.” By the way, you cannot have the “same” dress, unless the person wearing it is willing to give it to you. So the sentence will be. “I want a dress exactly like that one.”

Another often-misused word is “advance”. “Advance” means “beforehand”. Similarly, “planning” is doing something beforehand. Then why would you say, “advance planning”? OR “advance warming” OR “advance reservations? “Warning” and “reservations are done before an event happens, right? The word “advance” in these expressions is superfluous. Just say. “Approach counter number one for reservations.”

And please do not write “add up.” The word “up is redundant here. It does not add to the meaning of this phrase. When you add, you make a sum. Why would you “up” it?

You do not “ask a question.” You merely “ask. Asking means “posing a question.” Example: “She asked if she could get a ticket for the movie.”

What not to say

Why would you say “ATM machines” when ATM stands for Automated Teller Machines?

Why would you say “ECR Road” when ECR stands for East Coast Road?

Why would you say “LPG gas” when LPG stands for Liquefied Petroleum Gas?

When you use an abbreviation, it is a good idea to find out what the letters stand for.

And what is the meaning of “all-time record”? “Record” is when you achieve a goal that others have not. Any record is for all time, till it is broken. Say: “Winning all three awards was a record for India.”

Think before you write!

Do not add “basic” to “fundamentals”, “necessities”, “essentials.” By their nature, “fundamentals”, necessities” and “essentials” are basic. So the word “basic” is unnecessary. Example: “Food, water and a roof are necessities for every human being.”

How many times have we heard people say “brief moment” or “brief summary”? A moment is brief, and a summary is brief. If it is long, it cannot be called a summary. It becomes an essay. A moment cannot be long unless the author wants to create a feeling of time passing. So “brief moment” and “brief summary” do not make sense at all.

Objectionable phrases

Writers also object to the phrase “empty space.” Their argument space refers to a continuous area or expanse that is free, unoccupied, available. “Space” is essentially empty. The word “empty is redundant. Example: “We have enough space for ten people here.”

The expression “few in number” is wrong for several reasons. First, the adjective “few’ means almost nil or negligible in number. The word “few” is used only with countable nouns. “Few” already means “a small number.” Example: “Few people will support the idea that children need not know handwork.” If you want to use “few” to convey a certain small number, simply say, “a few.” Example: A few students have volunteered to help with the arrangements. NOT “A few in number’.

Avoid saying “new innovation” and “added bonus.”

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Here is something to think about. Would you agree if I said that alphabets are some of the most significant inventions in the history of human civilisation?

We use the 26 letters of the English language every day in some way or the other. We write notes, headlines, letters, stories, poems. Using these symbols with sounds. Have we ever stopped to wonder where these letters (or symbols) came from? And why do they look like this (example – “A”) and not like something else? I read an interesting piece on the English alphabet by Richard Nordquist in ThoughtCo.com, where the author gives us quick facts about the English alphabet. Like many of the words we use, the word alphabet comes from two Greek words, ‘alpha and beta’. ‘Alpha’ and ‘beta’ are the names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet. These words were taken from Semitic names for the symbols ox (aleph) and house (beth). That makes Semitic one of the oldest languages in the world.

Semitic, Greek, Roman

The original Semitic language had a set of 30 signs. All these were consonants. This alphabet was used in ancient Phoenicia around 1600 B.C. Most scholars believe it is the ancestor of all later alphabets. One exception was perhaps the Korean Hangul script, created in the 15th Century.

Around 1000 B.C., the Greeks adopted the Semitic alphabet. When they found no vowels in it, they converted some of the symbols in the Semitic alphabet into vowel sounds.

Later, the Romans developed their own version of the Greek (or lonic) alphabet. Historians tell us that the Roman alphabet was adopted by the Irish and then reached England sometime during the early period of Old English (5th Century to 12th Century).

In the last 1,000 years, the English alphabet has changed a little. Some of the letters have been deleted, and new functions have been given to some of the old letters.

If you ignore these alterations, our modern English alphabet remains quite similar to the Roman alphabet we inherited from the Irish.

Languages that use the Roman Alphabet

According to Richard Nordquist, some 100 languages have adopted the Roman alphabet. That means nearly 2 billion people across the world use it. Well, it is the world’s most popular script.

In 2004, David Sacks wrote in his book “Letter Perfect”: “There are variations of the Roman alphabet: For example, English employs 26 letters, Finnish, 21: Croatian, 30. But at the core are the 23 letters of ancient Rome. (The Romans did not have J, V, and W.)”

That brings us to the number of sounds. How many sounds are there in the English language? There are more than 40 distinct sounds. These are called phonemes. Forty sounds and 26 letters to represent them? The math doesn’t work out right? So, most letters stand for more than one sound

For example, you know how the consonant “C” works. It is pronounced in three different ways. Check out these words: case. cider, cherish (the last when combined with “h”).

Majuscules and minuscules

The use of capital and small letters (upper and lower case letters) is a unique concept in English. Capital letters are called Majuscules (from Latin ‘majusculus, meaning large). Small or lower-case letters are called Minuscules (from the Latin minusculus’, meaning small).

The combination of majuscules and minuscules in a single language system (the dual alphabet) first appeared in a form of writing named after Emperor Charlemagne (742-814), the “Carolingian minuscule.”

Have you come across a sentence that contains all the 26 letters? Can you form one? If you can, did you know that such sentences have a name? They are called pangrams. The best-known example of a pangram is: ‘The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.”

Another interesting fact about the English alphabet is that a sentence or a paragraph can be written after deliberately excluding a letter of the alphabet. For example, try writing a short paragraph without the letter “d”. If you do that, the text is called a lipogram.

The best-known example of a lipogram in English, is Ernest Vincent Wright’s novel “Gadsby: Champion of Youth”, published in 1939. It is a story of more than 50,000 words in which the letter “e” does not appear at all. Amazing! And I thought “e” was the most frequently used letter in the English language!

Zed or Zee?

We definitely want to know why the last letter ‘Z” is pronounced in two different ways. Americans say “Zee” and the English, Canadians, Australians and those who speak English in other countries prefer to say “Zed” when they read “Z”.

Here is why. “Zed” is the older pronunciation for the letter “Z”. It came from the older version of the French language. The American “zee” is a dialect form heard in England during the 17th century (perhaps to rhyme with bee (B), dee (D), etc.). It was recognised by Noah Webster in his American Dictionary of the English language (1828).

Why is Z’ the last letter?

No, it wasn’t always pushed to the end. In the Greek alphabet, it came in at a respectable position – number seven. According to Tom McArthur in “The Oxford Companion to the English Language” (1992): “The Romans adopted z later than the rest of the alphabet, since /z/ was not a native Latin sound, adding it at the end of their list of letters and using it rarely.” The Irish and English simply followed the Roman practice of placing “z” last.

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An ‘authorism’ is a new word. It means words and phrases invented or just popularised by well-known authors.

A great writer adds new words to his masterpiece, people read them often, these masterpieces are taught studied and enacted, and the words become part of common usage.

A lot of us make up new words, but the ones used by famous writers become popular and are included in the dictionary. It is important that new words are made and included in a language. A rigid no-space for-new-words language will soon be confined to the library.

Writer Paul Dickson researched how writers influenced the English language and helped it grow richer, and has put the conclusions in his book “Authorisms: Words Wrought by Writers”. Let us see how some of the greatest writers influenced the English language.

William Shakespeare (1564-1616)

Shakespeare wrote plays, sonnets and songs. All of them are hugely popular. He is one of the most quoted writers. Some years ago, a woman watched a stage production of “Hamlet” by Shakespeare. As the play went on, she thought “I have heard all this before!” She knew the following sentences: “This above all, to thine own self be true.” “There is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it so,” “To be or not to be, that is the question,” “To sleep, perchance to dream,” “Though there be madness, yet there is method to it.” “Brevity is the soul of wit.” “I must be cruel only to be kind.” and “What a piece of work is a man!”. The woman left the theatre saying. “This play is nothing but a string of quotes!”

Shakespeare used 17, 245 words and they included hundreds of authorisms. His words – including, bump, critical, roadway and scuffle are all part of our vocabulary today. Shakespeare used slang too (swag’ in “Othello”). He borrowed words from classical literature and foreign languages. He broke grammar rules by changing nouns into verbs, verbs into adjectives. He gave himself freedom to play with the English language. Addiction, belongings, cold blooded, salad-days, neither-here-nor-there and send-him packing are some of the contributions of the Bard.

Geoffrey Chaucer (1343-1400)

Chaucer wrote in the Middle Ages, long before Shakespeare. When he wrote, the English language was a baby. His writings, mostly stories, gave the language dignity and recognition. Before he wrote, French and Latin were the dominant languages in England. Chaucer wrote in a kind of English that most people will not recognise today. His spellings were very different : little was littel, saw was saugh, and one sentence goes: “The lyf so short, the craft so long to lerne.” His “Canterbury Tales” is compulsory reading for those specialising in the English language.

His quotes, “f gold rusts, what then can iron do”?, “Nothing ventured, nothing gained”, “The greatest scholars are not usually the wisest people”, Time and tide wait for no man”, “The guilty think all talk is of themselves” are well known.

The authors of the King James Bible (written 1604-1611)

The King James Bible has had an enormous influence on the English language. Since 1611, the King James Bible has sold over one billion copies, making it one of the greatest selling books of all time The KJB added words like peacemaker and scapegoat to English. Former U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt once called the KJB “the most democratic book in the world.”

These phrases were popularised by the King James Bible

• A law unto themselves
• A man after his own heart
• A stumbling block
• Born again
• Bottomless pit
• Eye for an eye
• Fell flat on his face
• From strength to strength
• God forbid
• In the twinkling of an eye
• Left hand know what thy right hand doeth
• Love thy neighbour as thyself
• *Physician, heal thyself
• Put the words in her mouth
• Turn to him the other (cheek]
• Two-edged sword

Mark Twain (1835-1910)

Mark Twain (real name: Samuel Langhorne Clemens) is one of the greatest American writers. You must have read passages from his classic books “The Adventures of Tom Sawyer’ and its sequel “Adventures of Huckleberry Finn”. These are perennial favourites. Clemens was a riverboat pilot before he became an author. His writing is known for humour, political satire and the language of the common people. The great author William Faulkner called him the father of American literature.

Mark Twain was witty, and here are some examples of his sayings: “It is better to keep your mouth closed and let people think you are a fool than open your mouth and remove all doubt”, “It’s not the size of the dog in the fight, it’s the size of the fight in the dog”, “Kindness is the language which the deaf can hear and the blind can see”, “The secret of getting ahead is getting started.”

James Joyce (1882-1941)

James Joyce wrote a string of masterpieces – “Ulysses”. “Dubliners” and “Finnegans Wake” are among them. These are considered exceptional in ideas and style. In 1999, Time Magazine named him one of the most important people of the 20th century: it said that he “revolutionised 20th century fiction.” Joyce knew 17 languages, including Arabic, Sanskrit and Greek.

He also learnt Norwegian at the age of 19 so that he could read playwright Henrik Ibsen’s work in its original language. For him, the days of the week were “Moanday, Tearday, Wailsday, Thumpsday, Frightday, Shattered Ay.”

Some of his sayings are: “Life is too short to read a bad book”, “I am tomorrow, or some future day, what I establish today. I am today what I established yesterday or some previous day”, “To learn one must be humble”.

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“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?” So goes one of William Shakespeare’s famous sonnets. But what exactly is a sonnet? Not exactly a neither song nor prose, a sonnet is something special. Composed of just 14 lines, the sonnet is a poem written in iambic pentameter.

The word ‘sonnet has been derived from the Italian word sonetto, meaning “a little sound or song.” It first appeared in the poetry of Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, in the 16th Century. Howard translated Italian sonnets into English and composed his own.

Writers often composed sonnets to make a living when theatres were closed due to the plague. Sonnets were considered to be an art form through which artists showed off their talents. Wealthy people paid Shakespeare to write sonnets for them.

Shakespeare’s sonnets are composed of 14 lines, and most are divided into three quatrains and a final, concluding couplet, rhyming ABAB CDCD EFEF GG. This sonnet form and rhyme scheme is known as the English’ sonnet.

Different types of sonnets

Most of us might be familiar with Shakespeare’s sonnets. Known as the English sonnet, it is the most common and simplest type. But did you know there are several other types too? Here’s a look at some of them…

• Petrarchan: The Petrarchan sonnet is named after the Italian poet Francesco Petrarch, a lyrical poet of 14th Century Italy.
• Spensarian: This is a variation of the Shakespearean sonnet with a more challenging rhyme scheme: ABAB BCBC CDCD EE.
• Miltonic: These sonnets examined an internal struggle or conflict and sometimes stretched beyond traditional limits on rhyme or length.

Who created the first sonnet?

Italian poet Giacomo da Lentini is credited with the invention of the sonnet. A notary at the court of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, da Lentini composed poetry in the literary Sicilian dialect in the 13th Century.

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Are you afraid of ghosts? Did you know that ghosts can lurk not only in haunted mansions and dark comers, but also inside dictionaries?

Yes, you read that right. Ghost words are words that have entered into the dictionary by a human error rather than normal linguistic transmission.

They are usually a result of a misprint or an erroneous reading of a manuscript.

The Oxford English Dictionary defines a ghost word as “a word recorded in a dictionary or other reference work which is not actually used.”

Here are some ghost words that might be lurking inside your dictionary:

**Abacot is a ghost word that arose through a series of misreadings. The word first appeared in the second edition of “Holisnhed’s Chronicles” in 1587. It found its way into every major dictionary. Only 300 years later was it discovered that the word was a misprint of ‘bycoket’, meaning a cap or head-dress.

**Morse: The word ‘morse’ as a noun became popular after it appeared in  Sir Walter Scott’s 1820 novel, “The Monastery”. However, ‘morse’ mysteriously appeared as a verb in dictionaries. Was it Morse code? Not really, it was just a printing mistake, putting ‘morse’ instead of ‘nurse’.

**Momblishness: Though the word sounds similar to mumble, it turned out that momblish was actually a typographical error. The actual word was ‘ne-m’oublie-pas’. French for “don’t forget me”.

**Cairbow: Cairbow was mentioned in an early 20th century draft of the Oxford English Dictionary. The new word puzzled the editors: What was cairbow? A new type of rainbow or a polar creature? Well, none of the above. It turned out that cairbow was just a misreading of caribou.

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Some of us write simple straight sentences. Some of us prefer to use multisyllabic words (such as: integrative) and long sentences thinking, “When I know it, why not just use it?”

We use idioms to make a point and add colour to our writing. Look at the difference between “Don’t go near that pond” and If were you. I wouldn’t go near that pond. In short we all have our unique ways of writing. That’s fine, as long as the reader gets the meaning and the purpose of your writing

What if you use words that are misleading or just plain wrong? It is good to make sure the words and phrases you use are precise, necessary and error free.

The following examples will help you avoid the pitfalls of writing without thinking properly.

Oxymoron

You have an oxymoron when two words opposite in meaning are expressed together. It is a figure of speech containing words that seem to contradict each other or cancel each other out. It’s often referred to as a ‘contradiction in terms

Oxymorons are used for a variety of purposes. Sometimes they’re used to create a little bit of drama for the reader sometimes to add spice to the prose or poem; sometimes they’re used for emphasis, or to make a person stop and think “Is this funny? Is this absurd?”

A common oxymoron is the phrase the same difference. This phrase is an oxymoron because the words same and difference have completely opposite meanings. Bringing them together into one phrase produces a puzzle

A true myth’ eh? What do you make of that? Interesting, right? An oxymoron, as a figure of speech, is used in poems for emphasis. Shakespeare used these in his tragic play “Romeo and Juliet”: loving hate, heavy lightness”, feather of lead, ‘bright smoke, cold fire’, sick health’.

But if you use it without realising it is an oxymoron, it can lead to funny (read: absurd) phrases, that are best avoided. What is virtual reality? Who are paid volunteers?

Errors and effective phrases

Do you use the following in speech or writing? It’s likely you have, or you may have heard of them.

Found missing, fully empty seriously funny, only choice. original copies, act naturally, clearly confused, deafening silence, farewell reception. growing smaller, open secret sweet sorrow, weirdly normal.

Writers have used oxymoron words and phrases to good effect. These examples, seen in their context will show us how this figure of speech can be effective not just as phrases, but in the meaning of the whole sentence.

I like a smuggler. He is the I only honest thief Charles Lamb

I can believe anything, provided that it is quite incredible. Oscar Wilde

And faith unfaithful kept him falsely true. Alfred Tennyson

Modem dancing is so old fashioned. Samuel Goldwyn

I am a deeply superficial person. Andy Warhol

We’re busy doing nothing Bing Crosby

No one goes to that restaurant any more. It’s always too crowded. Yogi Berra

A joke is actually an extremely really serious issue. Winston Churchill

I like humanity but i loathe persons. Edna St. Vincent Millay

I generally advise persons never ever to present assistance. P. G. Wodehouse

Avoid malapropism

Have you ever used the wrong word in the wrong context? Read more to find out how to avoid this mistake.

Malapropism is the act of using an incorrect word in place of one that is similar in pronunciation. Answer this: Which one is right?

The man is an imminent personality known for his books on climate change.

The man is an eminent personality known for his books on climate change. The word Malapropism comes from a character named Mrs. Malaprop in the play “The Rivals by Richard Brinsley Sheridan. The playwright Sheridan chose the name Malaprop because the word malapropos means inappropriate In the play. Mrs. Malaprop often used words that sounded similar but were wrong in the context. (“Illiterate him quite from memory instead of “Obliterate him”) Malapropism is also referred to as Dogberryism, named after Officer Dogberry in Shakespeare’s “Much Ado About Nothing”. Both characters made these speech errors. Here are some examples of malapropisms: Mrs. Malaprop said, “She’s as headstrong as an allegory (alligator) Officer Dogberry said, “Our watch, sir, have indeed comprehended two auspicious persons (apprehended two suspicious persons)

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It is often said that short is sweet but sometimes stories need long, sprawling sentences to have a bigger impact. These long monologues and multi-line descriptions are known as the run-on sentence. And over the years, some of the authors have taken the nun-on technique as far as it can go writing some of the longest sentences in English in the process.

What is a run-on?

Run-on sentences are sentences that contain too many ideas, often without proper punctuation Typically, they include independent causes that are joined together without any connecting word or punctuation to separate the clauses.

However, not all long sentences are run-on sentences. For instance, the 800-word sentence in Victor Hugo’s “Les Miserables” is one of the longest grammatically correct lines to appear in any work of literature But Hugo’s sentence is not a run on.

Setting word records

James Joyce and William Faulkner, both renowned authors and poets, were among the earliest to master the run-on. Joyce held the world record for the longest nun-on with a 3,687 word sentence in Ulysses”. The novel contains the character Molly Bloom’s 36 page, two sentence monologue.

In 1983, Faulkner was featured in the Guinness Book of World Records for his lengthy passage from his 1936 book. “Absalom, Absalom!” The huge run on sentence consists of as many as 1,288 words and countless clauses. Once you get into its rhythm, the sentence immerses you in Faulkners stream of consciousness (unfiltered flow of thoughts). Faulkners experimental sentence style proved an inspiration to modern writers such as Samuel Beckett. Virginia Woolf and F. Scott Fitzgerald.

Recent examples

Post modem writers are still influenced by Faulkners nun-on technique. The current record holder the longest English sentence is Jonathan Coe for his staggering 33-page 13,955-word sentence in “The Rotter’s Club (2001).

Last year, Lucy Ellmann’s “Ducks” which consists of a single sentence (published in parts throughout the novel) running over 1,000 pages, was shortlisted for the Booker Prize.

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Coming to think of it, not everyone says “Yes” in the same way, though the meaning is the same – “I agree with you”, “I shall do what you want me to”, “What you say is right”. all of which means you agree generally with the person you are speaking to. But do we say “Yes” in the same tone and pitch always? Certainly not. Read the following aloud using the punctuation as dues. You will see how the simple word “Yes” can express different ways of agreeing.

[1] Yes! [2] Yes, yes, yes! [3] Yes. [4] Yes. [5] Yes? [6] Yes, [7] Yes – [8] Yeeeees..

Form a question each for these eight ways of saying “Yes”.

For example:

Question: Would you like a cup of ice cream?

Answer: Yes!

 “Yes” is a very old word. It entered English before 900 AD and comes from the Old English word “gese” meaning “may it be so.” Before the 1600s, “yes” was often used only as an affirmative to a negative question (‘You have not read the book?”), and “Year” was the all-purpose way to say “Yes.” [Examples: “Will you marry me?”, “Are you going abroad?” – “Yea’) By the 1800s, “Yeah” was being used widely, and came to be labelled as an Americanism.

Popular substitutes

There is another aspect to saying “Yes.” You can speak in the affirmative without captain. [“Aye, aye, captain!) It is a formal response meaning “yes” in the British House of Commons. It is also an I. Etymologists [those who study the saying “Yes.” That is, you can say “Yes” using a variety of words and phrases that have no “yes” in them. Here is a list.

[1] Aye: You would have heard this word in movies where soldiers answer the accepted substitute for “Tea” in a voice vote in the U.S. House of Representatives. When it first entered English, it was often spelled origin of words) don’t know where it came from, but it appeared suddenly in the late 1500s and is still with us.

[2] Indubitably: The word mean “indubitably”, meaning “without doubt, has the prefix “in” which when added to words generally makes it negative. [active-inactive] “Indubitably” like many words with a negative prefix comes from the root dubitable. Strangely though, the negative version of the word has always been more popular than its root. Both “dubitably” and indubitably” come from the Latin word “dubitare” meaning “to doubt.”

[3] OK, Okey: We generally associate the word “Ok” with Americans, but not everyone agrees “Ok” is an Americanism. But it is possible it came from the 1840 American presidential election in which political candidates jokingly mis-spelled the phrase “all correct” as “oll korrect” and then shortened it to “Okey” and “Ok”. There are also stories that the word had its origin in military barracks and soldiers gave it this spelling, but we cannot say if that story is true.

An informal version of “Ok” is okey dokey”. It is a goofy version really and you don’t want to use it when you are serious about saying “Yes”. No Okey dokey when you are asked, “Will you collect the hall-ticket from your teacher” The right answer to this is: “Yes, certainly.” 

[4] Sure: The word “Sure” is related to the Old French word with the same spelling, which meant “safe” or “secure.” Till the early 1500s, “Sure” meant “safe”. In the mid-1500s, people began to use the word “sure” when they meant “certainly” and “indubitably.” from which we get the phrases “to be sure” and “for sure“. Of course the phrase “sure thing” is without doubt an Americanism. It began to be used in the 1800s.

[4] Sure: The word “Sure” is related to the old French word with the same spelling, which meant “safe” or “secure” Till the early 1500s, “sure” meant “safe”. In the mid-1500s, people began to use the word “sure” when they meant “certainly” and indubitably,” from which we get the phrases “to be sure” and “for sure”. Of course the phrase “sure thing” is without doubt an Americanism. It began to be used in the 1800s.

[5] Yeah: This common casual variation of “yes” arose in the early 20th century in America. It is said with a drawl (elongated way) and is often used sarcastically. Since the 1980s, its usage of “yeah” appeared in the 1960s and may be a variation on the word “hooray.” However, it remains the least used among our “yes” alternatives. You hear this in sports stadiums when a match is going has risen dramatically, and is used widely in speech and writing.

 [6] Yay: This possible alternative spelling on, right?

[7] By all means: This affirmative means that it is an “yes” in every way possible. [Example: “Can we invite all the school leaders for the meeting?” “By all means.”]

[8] Affirmative: People say “affirmative” when they want to say “yes” just because they feel very pleased with themselves. This form of saying “yes” is found mostly in North America, where you can also hear the phrase “in the affirmative.” [Example: “The last time I asked you for permission to watch football, you replied in the affirmative.

[9] Roger. You heard this in movies when the soldiers are talking on the radio. “Roger” is used to acknowledge receipt of a message. Of course, no one can stop us from using it in casual conversation, and we have been doing so for quite some time. [Example: “Shall we order pizza for dinner today?” “Roger!” We feel well informed when we say that right?]

[10] Uh-huh: Saying “Yes” this way needs a bit of practice, since it is mostly sound with no history of its origin. This sound is a verbalised shrug, which can mean “yes” or “no”. It is a non-committal way of saying ‘Yes.” [‘You can do it, I really don’t care.) When you say “uh-huh”, you need to nod as well, to make your “Yes” clear.  

[11] Righto: This one is British. You can simply say “Right!” without the “o” in the end. But “Right” is informal and cheerful, don’t you think?

[12] Very well. This is a very useful phrase to convey that you accept because you don’t know what else to do. You are accepting something out of compulsion. Also out of exasperation. You are not excited about saying “yes” to the listener. Try saying this: “Oh, you want to use my mobile phone?  Very well then. Here it is.”  

[13] Yup: ‘Yup” and its variation ‘Yep” are such a joy to say. This is because of the “p” in the end that gives it a strong emphasis. [It is called the “implosive “p”.

Example: “Do you want to join the river cruise?” “Yep!)

[14] Right on: Even stronger than “Yep” is “Right on.” You say “Right on!” when you want to convey an overwhelming sense of approval.

[15] Totally: Try saying this, it makes you feel so superior! [Example: “people have no idea about cleanliness!” “Totally!”)

[16] Amen: This phrase goes all the way back to a Hebrew word, meaning “truth, certainty.” It is usually said at the end of a prayer or hymn, and stands for “so be it.” “Amen” is also used to express agreement or assent, sometimes in the form “Amen to that.” There are others too. I have heard people say “No mistake, very much so!”, “Certainly!”, “Of course”, and “You bet!” And now we have the emojis to help us say “Yes” without a single alphabet in the writing. Cool!

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We all want to write – and write creatively. If you want your writing to shine, you should make sure it is original. It should read like it is fresh, not only in ideas, but also in the way you put them across. With your writing you should try to create a world of words. It doesn’t matter what you are writing – stories, letters, passages or simply answers to questions in a test, you need to make it readable and interesting. Some people say writing beautifully is a gift. Agreed, we cannot all write like our favourite authors (though we wish we could), but we can definitely enhance the beauty of what we write by following a few simple tips.

Add freshness to your writing

Our simple way to add freshness to your writing is to avoid repetition of words and phrases. When you want to write creatively, you need to look for new ways to clothe your ideas in. The best and the easiest access to this are the dictionaries and the thesaurus. Let’s look at some verbs we tend to repeat and find alternatives for them.

Said

Dialogues often form the most important parts of a story. We typically start dialogues/direct speech with the default “said.” I suspect that readers just skim over this overused word and move on to what is being said. But you can give the speech more strength and draw more attention to what is being said by substituting “said” with more meaningful words. For example:

He said, “I have to leave now.” She said, “No, you cannot go. The meeting is not over.” He said, “I have to, I will be late for the flight.” She said, “But this is important.”

Walked

“Walked” is another overused, common word. It adds nothing to creativity in writing, and readers will not bother to visualize the action you are describing. So why not “ambled, strolled, moved, shuffled, pushed, trudged , manoeuvred? Remember, the word “moved” when used often, can confuse the readers since it also means a mental state. “I was moved to tears by the performance.”

Paragraph 1: He walked through the crowd. He walked across the street slowly, trying not to push those around him. He walked, looking at the shops and walked on as if he did not have a care in the world.

Paragraph 2: He trudged through the crowd. He shuffled across the street slowly, trying not to push those around him. He ambled on, looking at the shops and moved as if he did not have a care in the world.

See how paragraph II tells you more about the state of the person when you use synonyms for “walked”?

Amazing

Oh, this is another word used for anything everywhere! Do you want to fill all your descriptive blanks with this one word? Plus, can a pizza, the unexpected ending of a story, a work of art, a monument, a guard’s bravery when confronting a thief – all be amazing on the same scale? The word loses its punch and gets your readers to yawn. Reach for the thesaurus now. What words can you choose to substitute “amazing” with?

Very

The adverb of degree “very” is now very flat. Adding it to show degree looks like lazy writing. Very disturbing, very normal, very beautiful, very annoying – very boring! Using it so much will not help to make your writing unique.

Try these instead, greatly, terribly, absolutely (another overused word), remarkably, notably, eminently, honestly, neatly.

But when it comes to adverbs, I prefer to use them to the minimum. It is better to allow the narrative speak for itself, without help from adverbs.

Nice

My English teacher would always circle the word “nice” in our answers and reduce marks for poor writing.

“Everything cannot be labeled as “nice”, she taught us. “Find appropriate synonyms!”

We did. A whole lot of them like pleasant, pleasing, satisfying, acceptable, delightful, enjoyable, pleasurable, congenial, fine, delicate, precise, meaningful. When we used these other words our descriptions were precise, accurate, and gave the reader a better sense of the object/idea we were describing.

Look

This is an overused basic verb. Happily, there are so many synonyms and substitutes for this word that you will always find one that is appropriate to the action you are describing. Find one that is exciting! Here is a list: glance, notice, peer, stare, study, watch, view, note, and glimpse.

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A marketing salesman was on a mission to find out if his product would sell in European countries – both east and west. As he travelled, he met with one major problem. Every country spoke a different language – German, French, Armenia, Dutch, Swedish, Spanish and a whole lot more. He solved it through a simple method. He would go into a restaurant call out, “Does anyone speak English here?” someone would, and he would get the information he needed. This went on for weeks, till he came to an eatery in a new place. He asked his question. The answer was, “Why sir, yes! This is England!” The poor salesman could have had an easier time – if only all these countries spoke the same language! And there is such a language called Esperanto. It is a world language, created to make communication among people from different countries easy. It was created some hundred years ago. According to language scholar Axel Belinfante, the fact that Esperanto has been around for so many years shows that it is a living language, capable of expressing all human thought.

A look at its history

Esperanto was created in 1887 by Dr. LL Zamenhof. He wanted it to be taught as second language so that people speaking different native languages could communicate. This arrangement would ensure that people did not forget their language or lose their cultural identity.

Zamenhof grew up in Bialystok, Poland, where different groups of people spoke different languages and followed different cultural practices. And they all lived inside Poland! Travelling and understanding one another within the same country was problematic! To solve this strange situation, he created his common language. He made it logical with a regular design so anyone could learn it.

The full name for Esperanto is Doktoro Esperanto. “Esperanto” translates to “one who hopes” [from the verb “esperi” (to hope)] and is drawn from the pseudonym LL Zamenhof, the creator of Esperanto, used when he published his first book on the language called Unua Libro in 1887. Most Esperanto root words are taken from Italian, French, German and English. A select few words come from Latin, Greek, Lithuanian Russian and Polish, as well. This connection is what makes Esperanto so useful in studying any of these European languages.

How will learning Esperanto help us?

It makes sense

Esperanto has 16 regular rules of grammar and a regular phonetic spelling. There are no exceptions to these rules. You can apply these rules constantly without hurdles. In English “do” and “go” are pronounced differently, though both have an “o” after a consonant. Esperanto is learned quickly and easily, compared to a lot of languages.

You can be a Polyglot

A polyglot is a person who speaks four or more languages. Studies have shown that students who learn Esperanto as a secondary language find it easy to learn a third language. The logic is Esperanto opens the logic (or otherwise) in all languages.

You’ll make new friends

If you know Esperanto, you get to know more people from across the world. You learn Esperanto because you want to have international friends. Esperanto magazines which columns that have many members practising the language.

You will travel widely

If you know Esperanto well, you will want to use it, right? And you can use it anywhere in the world! You can join the educated crowd in any part of the educated globe – from Alaska to Australia. Imagine staying with Esperantists overseas and getting to go round their country with them. Knowing the common world language gives you the advantage of staying anywhere, a small village in Italy to a large city in Kenya. You can connect with Esperantists of the world in a number of ways. For example, Pasporta Servo, an international network of Esperanto speakers run by the World Esperantist Youth Organization.

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Thanksgiving Day is a national holiday in the United States. There are many accounts about how it all began. Here is a popular version from history.com.

In September 1620, a small ship called Mayflower left Plymouth, England, carrying 102 passengers. They consisted of religious separatists looking for a new home where they could practice their faith freely and other individuals lured by the promise of prosperity and land ownership in the New World. After 66 days of enormous difficulties, they dropped anchor near the tip of Cape Cod in the northern part of the USA. One month later, Mayflower crossed Massachusetts Bay, where the Pilgrims, as they are now commonly known, began the work of establishing a village at Plymouth.

Throughout their first winter, most of the colonists remained on board the ship. They suffered from exposure, scurvy and outbreaks of contagious disaeses. Only half of the Mayflower’s original passengers and crew survived. In March, the remaining settlers went ashore. They were astonished when an Abenaki Indian came and greeted them in English. He brought another native American, Squanto, a member of the Pawtuxet tribe. This man had been kidnapped by an English sea captain and sold into slavery. He escaped to London and returned to his homeland on an expedition. Squanto taught the Pilgrims how to cultivate corn, extract sap from maple trees, catch fish in the rivers and avoid poisonous plants. He also helped the settlers forge an alliance with the Wampanog, a local tribe.

In November 1621, the Pilgrims’ first corn harvest turned successful. Governor William Bradford organized a celebratory feast and invited a group of natives, including the Wampanoag chief Massasoit. This event is now remembered as America’s “first Thanksginving”. The festival lasted three days. Edward Winslow, who traced the voyage of the Pilgrims wrote that the menu of the feast included fowl, deer and fruit. There was no dessert because native Americans did not bake.

Pilgrims held their second Thanksgiving celebration in 1623. This was to mark the end of a long drought. Thanksgiving on an annual or occasional basis became common practice in other New England settlements as well.

In 1789, George Washington issued the first Thanksgiving proclamation by the national government of the United States. He asked Americans to express their gratitude for the success in the country’s war of independence and the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. His successors John Adams and James Madison continued the celebrations.

In 1817, New York became the first state to adopt an annual Thanksgiving holiday. Other states followed, but mostly in the north of the country. The American South remained largely unfamiliar with the tradition.

In 1827, magazine editor and author Sarah Hale launched a campaign to establish Thankgiving as a national holiday. For 36 years, she published editorials and sent letters to governors, senators, presidents and other politicians. She came to be known as the “Mother of Thanksgiving.”

Abraham Lincoln finally heeded her request in 1863. At the height of the Civil War, he requested Americans to ask God to “commend to his tender care all those who have become widows, orphans, mourners or suffers in the lamentable civil strife” and to “heal the wounds of the nation.” He scheduled Thanksgiving for the final Thursday in November, and it was celebrated on that day every year.

In 1939, the month of November started on a Wednesday and there were five Thursdays. President Franklin Roosevelt moved the Thanksgiving day to the second last Thursday, saying this gave people more time to shop, and traders the opportunity to close shop early in the season and open them well in time for Christmas shopping. One of the fall-outs of this change in the date was the birth of Black Friday – a day when people go crazy shopping since everything is available at a discount.

In 1940, November had only four Thursdays. However, Thanksgiving was announced to be on the Thursday before the last one. The change in the date had stuck. Reports say that in 1941, the President admitted that the switch was a mistake. Too late! The calenders had been printed marking the third Thursday of November as Thanksgiving Day. All right said President Roosevelt. What cannot cannot be changed must be endured, so he made the change permanent, by signing a bill making Thanksgiving Day fall on the fourth Thursday of November, whether it was the last Thursday of the month or not.

Words and the day

Now look at some of the words associated with the festival and the legends behind them.

Cornucopia

At Thanksgiving lunch, people place a giant horn-shaped basket full of fruits and vegetables in the middle of the table. It is formally known as “cornucopia” or the Horn of Plenty. The word comes from the Latin cornu, meaning “horn,” and copiae, meaning “of plenty”. The Greek god Zeus is said to have been fed by the food-filled horn of the goat Amalthea when he was a baby. Another myth says Hercules ripped off the horn of a river god in a wrestling match. Then the nymphs turned it into a cornucopia full of fruit and flowers to commemorate his triumph. In The Hunger Games, you see the horn-shaped cache of weapons called “Horn of Plenty.”

Cold turkey

Meaning: wholly and suddenly.

Gobble up

Meaning: to eat/use something very quickly and eagerly;

Turkey Trot

Meaning: a fun long-distance run or foot-race in a turkey costume that is held on or around Thanksgiving Day in the U.S.

Tofurkey

Meaning: the combination of the words “tofu” and “turkey”, i.e. a vegetarian version of turkey usually made from tofu (soybean protein) or seitan (wheat protein) with a stuffing made from grains or bread.

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Heard this carol?

Have you heard/sung the song Twelve Days of Christmas? Even if you have, check out the John Denver and the Muppets version. It is fun!

December 25 marks the official start of 12 days of Christmas. And this Christmas carol tells us what those twelve days are about.

In Christian belief, the 12 days of Christmas mark the period between the birth of Christ and the coming of the Magi, the three wise men. It ends on January 6 (Epiphany or Three King’s Day). The four weeks preceding Christmas are described as Advent, which begins four Sundays before Christmas and ends on December 24.

In the carol, the singer brags about all the wonderful gifts the group received from their “true love” during the 12 days of Christmas. Each verse is an addition to the previous one, and the song gets longer and longer. The lyrics to “The 12 Days of Christmas” have changed over the years.

The one below is the most popular version.

On the first day of Christmas,

My true sent to me

A partridge in a pear tree.

The song then adds a gift for each day, building on the verse before it, until you sing of all 12 gifts together.

Day 2: two turtle doves, Day 3: three French hens, Day 4: four calling birds, Day 5: five gold rings, Day 6: six geese a-laying, Day 7: seven swans a-swimming, Day 8: eight maids a-milking, Day 9: nine ladies dancing, Day 10: 10 lords a-leaping, Day 11: 11 pipers piping, Day 12: twelve drummers drumming.

The song first appeared in a 1780 children’s book called Mirth With-out Mischief. Some historians think it was first sung in French. Whatever the language, it is a “memory” game, in which singers try to remember the lyrics and lose points if they make a mistake.

An English composer, Frederic Austin is credited with the version most of us are familiar with. In 1909, he set the melody and lyrics. When you sing the stretched “five go-old rings”, you should remember him. It was his idea.

Now let’s see why these gifts were chosen.

Partridge in a pear tree

It is not likely that you will find a partridge in a pear tree. Partridges are ground-nesting birds, and avoid flying high to perch in pear trees. The word “partridge” comes “perdix,” the Greek word for the bird. This in turn comes from a verb meaning “to break wind”, which refers to the sound of the wings as the bird takes off.

Two turtledoves

The turtledove is a bird and the word is used to refer to a beloved one. The “turtle” in the name is based on the Latin turtur that sounds like the bird’s distinctive call.

Turtledoves live in pairs, which show affection for the mate. This bond between birds has been described in Literature. In his poem of 1601 “The Phoenix and the Turtle”, Shakespeare refers to a tale of love between a phoenix and a turtledove.

Three French hens

We don’t know why people will give chicken as a Christmas gift, but poulets de Bresse (Bresse chicken) is a sought-after French hen, so the receiver may accept the three French hens. The word hen comes from the Old English hen(n), and is related to the Latin canere, “to sing,” so it is appropriate to be added to a carol.

Four calling birds

Most of us sing this line as “calling birds,” but in a 1780 version of this song, the line was “colly birds.” Around the time this song was published, “colly” in British dialects meant “dirty, grimy or coal black.” Frederic Austin’s 1909 version of “Twelve Days of Christmas” replaced colly with calling.

Five golden rings

We know what gold means. It stands for the valuable metal, and is form an ancient (Proto-Indo-European) root meaning “to shine.” This same root ultimately gives the word yellow, another meaning for “golden.” In the song, this lyric was originally “gold rings”, rather than “golden rings.”

Six geese a-laying

Birds again! But goose because it stands for a variety of things. It can refer to “the female web-footed swimming bird,” “a foolish person,” or “a poke in the back to startle someone.” There is also the idiom wild-goose chase, which refers to “a wild or absurd search for something unattainable.”

Seven swans a-swimming

It is comforting to know that the seventh day gift of seven swans are swimming and not singing! Swans do not have a voice that will get them to be included in the Christmas choir, so it is good these raucous birds will glide in the water and perhaps keep quiet.

The word swan means “the singing bird,” and is related to the Old English geswin, which means “melody, song” and swinsian, which means “to make melody.”

Eight maids a-milking

Since this song’s appearance in the late 1700s, “milk” in its verb form has stood for a range of actions, mostly shady. In card games, “to milk the pack” means “to shadily deal cards by pulling them from both the top and bottom of the deck.” “To milk at the horse race” was “to throw a horse race.” In the late 1800s, milk meant “to bug a telephone.”

Nine ladies dancing

The word “lady” is from the Old English hlaefdige, thought to literally mean “loaf-kneader” or, more broadly, “wife of a lord.” It entered English in the 1300s. The word dance comes from the Old French dancier. People preferred it to the Old English word for dance, sealtian.

Ten lords a-leaping

The word “lord” comes from the Old English word hlafweard, which literally meant “loaf-keeper.” Remember, “lady” means “loaf-kneader.” The origins of these words tell us about a social structure where wives made the bread and husbands guarded it. Of course today both can be breadwinners.

Eleven pipers piping

The word pipe, as a verb, meaning “to play on a pipe,” can be traced back to the Latin pipare, meaning “to peep, chirp.” It also means “to make a shrill sound like a pipe,” “to lead or bring by playing a pipe,” and, in baking, “to force dough or frosting through a pastry tube.”

Twelve drummers drumming

The word “drum” is the back formation of the longer word drumslade, alteration of the Dutch or Low German word trommelslag, which meant “drum beat.”

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What is a précis?

A précis, in general terms, is a shortened form of a passage. It should be clear, compact and logical, and it should not reduce the beauty of the original passage. It is a condensed version that conveys the thoughts in the original passage. The dictionary defines it as a “concise summary”. A précis keeps all the important ideas of the original passage. It is a kind of shorthand for the passage.

How does it help you?

Practice in précis writing helps you to improve your skills in reading. It helps you to write to the point. It helps you to write only what is necessary and it helps you to choose the right words and phrases.

Where do we come across précis writing?

• Newspaper headlines – Safety Meeting Ends in Accident
• Tag lines of articles and lessons – The True Story of a Real Fake
• Opening paragraph of a newspaper story, lecture or notes – Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.
• Advertisements – Just do it

Steps to follow

1. Read the whole passage carefully. Read it twice – once to understand what the passage is about. The second time, separate the major points from the minor ones. What can be left out?
2. Recognize the author’s tone and viewpoint. Is he saying “yes”? Is he saying “no”?
3. Re-read the passage if necessary for clear comprehension (understanding) of ideas.
4. Write in direct, assertive language. You are not arguing your points or explaining them. You are just stating them. Use statement (declarative sentences). Don’t refer to the author (“Tagore said that…”), just state directly what the author said.
5. Underline key phrases, make notes in the margin.
6. Observe the emphasis (what does the author feel strongly about?) used by the author.
7. Understand the importance of ideas that the author develops with the use of supporting facts and examples.
8. Do not use the specific examples, figures of speech or quotations cited by the author in your précis.
9. When you are selecting ideas from a passage, ask yourself the following question: If this idea were omitted, would the basic meaning of the passage be changed?

What should I remember?

The goal is to communicate to the reader (and yourself) the main thesis and the major points in the most succinct form.

• Be alert to what is being said in the passage.
• Keep the author’s viewpoint in mind. Respect what he says in the passage.
• Learn to distinguish between major and minor points.
• Learn to emphasise what is important and leave out the fluff.

How exactly do I write the précis?

1. Try to limit your précis to no more than 1/3 the length of the original passage.
2. Use clear, factual expressions, do not attempt to copy the style of the original source.
3. Do not copy a single sentence from the article! You may use the author’s key words and phrases only when they are technical. Understand exactly what the author means, and there is really no better way than to write it in your own words.
4. Do not introduce ideas of your own. Do not criticize or change the author’s ideas. This is not your writing. You are just condensing the passage for the reader.

The final checklist:

1. Is it a correct summary of the key points?
2. Is it comprehensive, touching on all the key points?
3. Is it efficient, saying a lot in a brief way?
4. Is the presentation clear to the reader?
5. Is the writing – grammar, spelling, etc, correct?

How to go about it

Look at a simple example of précis writing

Today there are 6000 million people in the world. Fifty years ago only about 2000 million people lived in it. If Earth’s population were evenly distributed over its land surface, there would be about 1000 persons to the square mile. But Earth has vast areas of forest, mountains and desert which are almost totally uninhabited. On the other hand, it has great cities each with millions of people living in a few square miles. To feed the fast-growing population of our earth, scientists and planners have to discover new ways to produce more. One possible way is to bring more land under cultivation. This can be done only in places where there is a lot of land not used for agricultural purposes. In many places this is no longer possible as all the arable land is already cultivated. A second way is to make use of new types of seeds to produce more. Already a number of new strains of paddy and wheat have been developed in different parts of the world. India is one of the countries where a lot of useful work has been done in the field of agriculture research. (193 words)

Step 1: underline key words or ideas

Step 2: write notes

• Increase in world population in last fifty years
• Population feeding solutions
• What has been done

Step 3: Use your own words to express these key ideas more concisely and to develop a paragraph (of one-third of the length) which conveys the original message accurately and is clear, concise and coherent.

The Précis

World Population and Food Production

During the last fifty years, the world population has increased from 2000 to 6000 million. It is unevenly distributed with millions of people living in a few big cities. Scientists in India and abroad are, therefore, busy with agriculture research to find out new methods of increasing food production to feed them all and they have already developed many new strains of paddy and wheat. (65 words)

Picture Credit : Google

On 29 April of this year, the Indian Army tweeted pictures of large footprints in the snow of the upper reaches of the Himalayas. This started of the old debate. Are there Yetis – the abominable snowmen in the Himalayan ranges? There has been no evidence of Yetis roaming in the mountains. The footprints photographed so far have been proved to be those of large bears. But we humans like stories of fantasy. We loved reading about the Yeti rescuing and protecting Tintin. And we all believe that one day these creatures of our minds will turn out to be real.

What are these “legendary creatures that we hope to see one day?

The Abominable Snowmen

It is a man-like beast that has been mentioned in Buddhist stories. The Lepchas (a Himalayan tribe) recognised a supernatural “Glacier Being” as one of their hunting gods and the ruler of all the forests’ creatures. Yeti is a recent version of this goal. The word comes from a Sherpa word, “yeh-the” meaning “small, man-like animal” or meti meaning “bear.” The sherpas depicted it as a man-like figure that left large tracks of its feet in the snow. They probably wanted the creature to be scary because they wanted to protect the children from wandering into the unknown areas around. It is something like the “Poochandi” that parents talk of it get children to obey.

Why is the snowman “Abominable”? There is an interesting story behind it. In 1921, a reporter interviewed explorers returning from the British Mount Everest Reconnaissance Expedition. The mountaineers said they had probably belonged to Metoh-Kangmi. Kangmi translates to “Snowman” and Metoh to “Man-Bear”. The writer interpreted the word “metoh” as “filthy.” He thought it would not be right to call the snowman “filthy” so changed it to “abominable” in his report. The name stuck.

Bigfoot

Bigfoot is a creature that was originally called Sasquatch. This is imagined to be a large, shaggy primate. It is supposed to walk upright like a man. Yeti belongs to Asia, Bigfoot is thought to be native to North America, specifically to be Pacific Northwest. Tales of ape-like wild men roaming in the region were told by tribal communities. “Sasquatch” is derived from sesquac, a Halkomelem word meaning “wild man”. The name “Bigfoot” is a 20th century word for the creature.

Who coined the word “Bigfoot”? Again a reporter. In 1958, a man noticed large, unidentifiable footprints near his bulldozer in Bluff Creek, California. He made a cast of the prints and showed it around. A reporter of a local newspaper wrote a story about this. People read the story and began referring to the unknown owner of the massive tracks as “Big Foot.” The writer of the article spelled it “Bigfoot,” and the name stuck. “Bigfoot” became part of the English dictionary.

Leshy

Leshy is a mythical European creature that is said to wander across the woods looking for young women to kidnap. Leshy is thought of as a forest spirit that looks very much like a human being, with pale white skin and bright green eyes. How do you distinguish it from others you know with pale skin and green eyes? You can because Leshy has no eyebrows, eyelashes and right ear.

Aswang

In the Philippines, the “abominable” creature is called Aswang. It is portrayed as a cross between a werewolf and a vampire. The word “Aswang” comes from the Sanskrit “asura,” meaning “demon.”

Yowie

Yowie is Australian’s answer to the Sasquatch. Of all the bigfoot-like cryptids (imaginary creatures), the Yowie is at the top for aggression. In the tales about it, it is described as a demon that tears off the head of small creatures like a dog or kangaroo. Yes, they do attack humans as well. Be armed when you wander in the outbacks of Australia, in the warning against the Yowie.

Mapinguari

Brazil in south America is the home of Mapinguari. It is a sloth-like humanoid. Some reports say the Mapinguari has a large mouth in the middle of its stomach. That’s weird, right? And this creature is supposed to inhabit the Amazon forests.

Chupacabra

Chupacabra Spanish for “goat-sucker” – is a gargoyle. It is wolf-like in appearance. But go to Puerto Rico, people will tell you it walks on two feet. Its Mexican avatar is supposed to suck the blood of goats. But the Puerto Rican chupacabra relishes all the yard animals.

Picture Credit : Google

From the dictionary

First, let’s go through the Macmillan dictionary.

[1]. fledged: (of a young bird) having wing feathers that are large enough for flight; able to fly. As in “a recently fledged bird.”

[2] flightless: a bird that cannot fly even though it has wings.

[3] great: “Great” has its own meaning in bird vocabulary. It is used in the names of birds or animals that are Larger than related, birds or animals. As in the “Great horned owl.”

[4] gregarious: gregarious animals or birds Live in groups

[5] Lesser: it is used in the names of some animals, birds, or plants to show that they are a smaller type. As in the “lesser egret.”

[6]migratory: a migratory bird or animal is one that migrates – moves to another place for warmth, food and,

shelter during certain months.

[7] webbed: if a bird or animal has webbed feet, it has skin between its toes to help it to swim well. Or web-footed: with toes that are joined by a piece of skin. As in the “web-footed-frog .”

[8] common: it is used in the names of birds and animals when there are more of them than related birds and animals.

Now let’s see how birds are often described.

young, wild, migratory, sea, white, smaller, aquatic, rare, black, native, mate, tropical, exotic, stuffed., larger, insectivorous, older, immature, tiny, flightless, predatory, blue, coloured, domestic, marine, caged, game, canary, winged, nesting, migrant, adult, sub-adult, coloured, nocturnal., brown, yellow, captive, humming, giant, happy, hungry, shore, sick

The flight of birds

Writer Liam O Flynn lists these steps for describing the flight of bids. He tells you how each bird has its unique method of flying and therefore needs a different set of words to describe it. “If you need to describe the flight of birds, it is best to divide them into separate categories of motion. For example, an eagle has a different flight pattern to a swallow.” He says there are over 58,000 words to help you, with your descriptive and divides birds into 7 different types based, on their movement.

Eagle: He was gliding through the air. He was soaring far above vs. He was sailing through the air.
Blackbird: He raced away from me. His wings were whirring at a furious rate. His wings were a flurry of motion.
Swallow: He was cutting through the air. He was flitting through the air’. He was skimming through the air.                                            Peregrine falcon: He swooped down on his victim. He plunged towards the ground. He dive-bombed his prey from a great height.                Kestrel:He was hanging in the air. He was hovering in the air. (Gerard Manley Hopkins named him the windhover). He was loitering the air and scanning the ground below.
Vulture: He was circling in the car. He was drifting in the car. He was climbing the thermals and going out of sight.
Seagull: He was lazing in the car. He was swimming through the car. He was cruising through the air.

A narrator’s thoughts

The seaside provides us with multi-sensory nourishment. But first you have to get past the seagulls. Such inelegant birds who haven’t had their train of thought broken by these pirates of the sky? You are just about to describe the smells from the far away villas when what was that? Was that actually the sound of squawking and quarrelling on this most blissful of mornings?

Then they ghost into view. They use the sun to hide their approach, but the noise they make is unmistakable. First one, then two, then a whole multitude of the troublemakers. They are after the breakfast roll you dutch tighter in your hand and you are up against it as these are a determined enemy. They sail and glide towards you, first, using the sun as a shield, and approaching in silent mode for the attack. The first one that you can make out properly is googling you with his cannibal’s eye, searching for your weaknesses. When he has established that you are [a victim], he makes his move. Tucking his wines in to himself, he swoops towards you like an avenging angel of death.

As you are bracing yourself his attack, the rest of the mob have circled in behind you and one of them has peaked at your hand trying to dislodge the roll.. Instinct has made you swipe at him and the blow lands on his soft body, scattering the rest and, throwing feathers into the car. He screams at you now, beating his wings furiously a few feet above your head. Pirate one has used this distraction to dive bomb your head and you feel the sharp end of one of his claws on your scalp. You now have an angry horde of seagulls flapping, whirling, swooping and plunging above your head. You are leaping up and down, with a large bacon, and sausage roll in your hand, and screaming vile curses at some birds. You put the roll inside your shirt. It is becoming a symbol of your resolve.

They increase the ferocity of their attack. They scream and circle, screech and plummet, all the while with wings a-flurry probing for weakness. Their beaks are sharp, their claws rip at you. They come at you from every angle, jabbing at your head and with their wings beating the air. They arrow down towards you in an unending wave of brazen attacks. You concede defeat. You sink to your knees and reach for the roll. You can smell the delicious waft of mustard and ketchup inside it as you throw it violently into the air. It never reaches the ground because these vampires of the beach are attacking it in a frenzy of barbarian proportions.

Picture Credit : Google

The book Eragon was written by a 15-year-old. As you read the book, you can make out it has been written by a young person. The plot is not original. As someone said, “The story is a cross between Star Wars and Lord of the Rings.” But the author, young Christopher Paolini pulls off a beautiful paragraph of advice for all of us. The language is direct, and the words are well-chosen. This is what he says: “First, let no one rule your mind or body. Take special care that your thoughts remain unfettered… Give men your ear, but not your heart. Show respect for those in power, but don’t follow them blindly. Judge with logic and reason, but comment not. Consider none your superior whatever their rank or station in life. Treat all fairly, or they will seek revenge. Be careful with your money. Hold fast to your beliefs and others will listen.” Wouldn’t you like to structure your sentences like this? With practice, you can. Here are some tried-and-tested steps to improve how you write in English.

Expand your vocabulary

Do not believe those who say they can write whatever they want with just 800 words. To express yourself clearly, you need a wide, active vocabulary. You may know a lot of words, but can you use them well to make your thoughts clear? Can you use them correctly?

For example: “If you are waiting for the demise in house prices, you may have to wait a long time.” Did you find the mistake in word usage? It is “decline”, not “demise.”

Learn new words not as just words, but in a context. In other words, read books to learn them.

Tip: When you learn a new word, try to learn all the forms of that word and the prepositions that are usually used with it, once you have understood what it means, use it in a sentence of your own.

Watch out for homophones

There are words that can trip you by sounding the same. For example, “We went site-seeing and had a great time.” You see what I mean? You went sight-seeing if you enjoyed yourself doing it. The word “site” is used when you want to talk of a place of happening. “The site of the accident was cordoned off by the police.” Check the word you have used if there is one that sounds the same, like “bear” and “bare”, “pour” and “pore.”

Tip: As you read, make a visual note of what the word looks like. Ask yourself: Which word should I use here? “There”, “their”, or “they’re”?

Read, read, read

“To acquire the habit of reading is to construct for yourself a refuge from almost all the miseries of life,” said W. Somerset Maugham, in Books and You. Reading constantly is the most important tool for getting familiar with the way English is written. When you read often, you memorise the phrases, some unique ways of arranging words and sentences. Reading good prose helps you correct your mistakes. Are you starting to read outside school books? Start with simple ones, may be meant for 9-10-year-olds. Read stories that interest you. Browse in bookstores as often as you can and buy books. Make reading a part of daily routine. There is another way to read now. A new genre called “text stories” has emerged in which you read a story through text messages. How exciting! You can read them on the go!

Try bookriot.com, bookbub.com, yourstoryclub.com

Do you prefer to “listen to” than read stories? Then look for audiobooks that stores have now. Look for them online. Or download them into your mobile. Some of these apps allow you to control the speed at which the story is narrated.  Listen to them at your own pace!

Tip: Read each text several times to make sure you understand how to use new words and expression in the text.

Develop a style of your own

Once you are familiar with the writing styles of classical authors, develop a style of your own. For example, you write using only the active voice, consciously avoiding the passive voice. If you are writing to the local authority complaining about street lights, focus on business English.

Improve your grammar and punctuation

Grammatical mistakes you make may distort the meaning. For example, if you mix up the tenses, the reader wonders whether the event has taken place or not. Use the appropriate tense and remember to use punctuation correctly. Avoid using whole lot exclamation marks. Avoid smileys.

Tip: Proofread carefully. Your reader will take it as carelessness if you make mistakes in grammar and usage.

Keep practicing

Writing is a lonely art. You have to sit at your computer and bang at the keys, coordinating your thoughts and the speed of keying in. so the only way to improve is to write, write daily and whenever you can. Key in your thoughts on a small diary or into your mobile phone. Develop it later. Be prepared to edit, add words, re-write when you find a new way of expressing the thought. But write! Practice makes perfect!

Get feedback

When you have finished writing something – letter, note, passage, short story – put it on your Facebook or blog page. See how readers respond to it. There is this Facebook group called “Learn English with Jack” with a chat feature. The app Hello Talk has a correction feature that should help. Or go to Grammarly that will help you correct your prose. Another app you can use is Linguee. It has a website as well. Here you will get real-life examples of words and phrases written/spoken by native English speakers.

Read it to people who care, ask for honest suggestions. Constantly be on the alert to improve your writing. Correct your mistakes at once. Soon you will discard these.

Copy down attractive sayings

Copy down, or file away on your PC attractive sayings, phrases and sentences, I do this constantly. I read these often so it becomes a model when I write. I keep a paper on the side of my computer in which I put down errors that I need to avoid. For example, the phrase, “according to me” is under the “Do Not Use” column. There is no such expression.

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How is a meaningful word formed? For example, how did a chair get its name [from Middle English, before that from Old French chaiere (or chaire which means ‘bishop’s throne,” and chaise meaning ‘chair’), which is from the Latin cathedra ‘seat’, in turn from Greek kathedra]. Yet, why did the Greeks call it “kathedra”? We do not know. In other words, we my know the origin of the word, but cannot find out the origin of the root word.

There are indeed words whose origin is very clear to us. These words were inspired by people. People who stood out did something, and often, these actions came to be known after their names.

“Eponymous” is the adjective to describe all the words derived from people. The word “eponymous” comes from the Greek adjective eponymous, which is itself from onyma, meaning “name.” Many eponyms are names of products, inventions or scientific discoveries coined after the person most closely associated with it. Example: macadam, guillotine, pasteurization. Other eponyms come from characters in fiction, mythology, pr geographical locations. Example: Rambo, hermaphrodite, marathon. Scientific terms have been created to honour a famous person or a friend. Think “watt” and “ohm”. What is interesting about eponyms is that they are words that came out of a deliberate naming process. These words did not evolve over a period of time.

Interesting eponyms

Here is a small list of eponyms: each has an interesting person behind its history!

1. Bowdlerize: “remove offensive words or passages from a written work before publishing it.” From Thomas Bowdler (1754-1825) who published an edition of Shakespeare that left out such things as the porter scene in Macbeth. After this bowdlerization, women who had been disallowed to read the plays by their parents/husbands, were now free to read them.
2. Boycott: “refuse to do business with someone.” From Charles C. Boycott (1832-1897), the Irish land agent. Boycott refused to conform to land reforms supported by the Irish Land League. The League then prevented Boycott from using stores, postal service and other places in the area. Today, boycotting is an important tool in campaigns against unjust rules and social conditions.
3. Cardigan: “style of swaeter that opens at the front.” From James Thomas Brudenell, 7th Earl of Cardigan. He was one of the commanders in the field on the day of the fatal Charge of the Light Brigade in the Crimean War. He wore a knitted waistcoat to keep warm during military campaigns.
4. Lynch: “Lynching” once meant any kind of on-the-spot punishment without trial, through flogging. Today it means to beat someone in a mob frenzy without a trial. From William Lynch, the author of “Lynch’s Law.” The “law” was an agreement with the Virginia General Assembly in 1782 that allowed Lynch to capture and punish criminals in Pittsylvania County without trial. The country had no official courts.
5. Machiavellian: “characterized by expediency, self-interest, and deceit.” From Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) who wrote The Prince (1531), a book on political theory. In it, Machiavelli argues that the most effective for men and governments to achieve and maintain power is to act smartly without worrying about moral considerations.
6. Mirandize: “to read the legal rights to a suspect arrested on a criminal charge.” From Ernesto A. Miranda (1941-1976), a labourer whose conviction on kidnapping and armed robbery was overturned because arresting officers had failed to inform him of his legal rights.
7. Oscar: “statuette awarded for excellence in film acting, directing, etc., giving annually since, 1928 by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.” The name “Oscar” was first applied to the statuette in 1936. The story: Margaret Herrick, the Academy’s librarian, took a look at the first statuette and said: “He reminds me of my Uncle Oscar!” her uncle was Oscar Pierce, wheat farmer and fruit grower, and the statuette was named Oscar.
8. Wellingtons: “waterproof boots of rubber or sometimes leather reaching to below the knee and worn in wet or muddy conditions.” Named for Arthur, 1st Duke of Wellington (1769-1852), who had many things named after him. These included a style of coat, hat, and trousers as well as varieties of apple and pine trees.

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How many questions do you ask on a given day? Do you always get the answers you need? What kinds of questions are successful in getting you answers? It is good to know the trick to ask the right questions in the right way. We ask questions for two main reasons. Can you guess what they are? Yes, to get information (why, what, who, where, when, how) and to confirm a statement (yes or no).

Our first task is to form a sentence that asks a question. “We play football every evening” is not a question. A statement has to be converted into a question (or an interrogative) sentence. To do that, we change the word order.

1. We put a question word in the beginning start with what/why/who/which/when/how and complete the sentence. In the end we place a question mark(?). Who is the Prime Minister of India?
2. We put a helping verb (is, were, has, have, did) in the beginning, complete the sentence and place a question mark. Have you read the book of Human Bondage?

How can we ask questions?

We can ask questions in different ways, depending on what we want to know. Let’s first see the 5Wh + 1H questions.

5Wh + 1H questions

These are the most common. All quiz programmes have these questions.

Read these examples. (Find the answers!)

1. Who was the greatest king of India?
2. When was the last time India won a gold medal in the Olympics?
3. Where can you find the highest mountain ranges?
4. What is the national song popularized by A.R. Rahman?
5. Why does the sun rise in the east?
6. How do animals in the water breathe?

5Wh +1H questions can be further divided into Interrogative pronouns, Interrogative adjectives and Interrogative adverbs.

1. Wh Interrogative pronouns [The question words are pronouns]

• What is your favourite game?
• Which is known as the ‘Manchester of the South? (Coimbatore)
• Whose is this pencil box?
• Who threw rubbish in the classroom?
• Whom do you want to see?

2. Wh Interrogative adjectives [The question words are adjectives, followed by the nouns they qualify.]

• Which city is known for mangoes?
• Whose telephone number do you want?
• What language do the Nagas speak?

3. Wh Interrogative adverbs [The question words modify verbs.]

• When will you buy me a mobile phone?
• Where were you last night?
• Why did you leave the tap open?
• How did you fix your glasses?

Embedded questions

These questions start with an auxiliary verb and have a noun clause (answers the question What?) starting with a Wh/ H word. The following table will make it clear.

The noun clause in these sentences is a question. It is embedded in another sentence.

Echo questions

You find these questions in speech alone. Here statements are made to sound like questions by raising the pitch in the voice in the end.

1. India has won the match?
2. I can eat the cake?
3. I can leave the classroom now?
4. You fell off the bicycle?

Yes/No Questions

Here the ‘be’ verb or the auxiliary verb begins the sentence.

1. Is she your friend?
2. Do you drink cola?
3. Has the bell gone?

Questions tags

These are short questions added to the end of the sentence to make sure the information is correct or to find out what the listener thinks about something.

Tips:

• If the statement is affirmative, the questions tag is negative. If the statement is negative, the tag is affirmative.
• The tense and the pronoun forms are the same in the statement and the tag.

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Has this happened to you.? You are listening to someone speaking and soon you lose the thread of what they are saying — because you are distracted by their grammatical errors, poor sentence construction, wrong method of splitting the sentence and repetition. Then you ask: “What was that person saying?” it is not difficult to speak without errors. “Errors in speaking” means your listeners will misunderstand you, or as in my case, will not pay attention to what you are saying. Faulty grammar and poor choice of words may lead your listener to think you are rude. Why do you have to say, “oh, no, that’s not what I meant!” Remember what Winston Churchill said: “All, men make mistakes, but only wise men learn from their mistakes.”

Here is a list of common conversation mistakes and the right way to speak those sentences:

Incorrect: My friend asked her that why she was late.

Right:  My friend, asked her why she was late.

Incorrect: You should immediately inform him our mistake.

Right: You should immediately inform him of our mistake.

Incorrect: I will exptain you the what happened.

Right: I will explain to you, what happened.

Incorrect: He gave a speech which received nationwide attention.

Right: He made a speech which received nationwide attention..

Incorrect: She decided to give the exam.

Right: She decided to take the exam. [A teacher gives an exam, while students take the exam.]

Incorrect: There is no other alternative.

Right: There is no alternative.

Incorrect: She has learnt the speech word by word.

Right: She has Learnt the speech word for word.

[The phrase “Word by word” means “one word at a time “Word for word” describes the relationship between two sets of words. Word for word shows accuracy while word by word is about the method you use to learn something.]

Incorrect: Kiran secured only passing marks in English.

Right: Kiran secured only pass marks in English.

Incorrect: Hardworking children have a thirst of knowledge.

Right: Hardworking children have a thirst for knowledge.

Incorrect: My daughter pays more attention to music than study.

Right: My daughter pays more attention to music than to study.

Incorrect: Please see a dictionary for knowing the meaning of this word.

Right: Please consult a dictionary to find out the meaning of this word.

Incorrect: she has read just two fifth of this book.

Right: She has just read two -fifths of this book.

Incorrect: Please open your book on page fifty-two.

Right: Please open your book at page fifty-two.

[When you are referring to a particular portion of any page, it means you are talking about the text or content on that page and so you should prefer “on the page”. For e.g. The answer is on page 15. But, when you say “at page”, it means you are referring to entire content on the page.]

Incorrect: My mother likes the poetries of Ramanand.

Right: My mother Likes the poetry of Ramanand.

Incorrect: I have written the answer paper with ink.

Right: I have written the answer paper in ink.

[When you, write with something, it indicates your medium of writing or a tool that you use for writing. For e.g. Pen, pencil, chalk, etc. But, when you write in something, it shows your style of writing or the way (method) in which you want your writing to appear – either in ink, in gel etc.

Incorrect: I want a red pen to write.

Right: I want a red pen to write with.

Incorrect: My mother wilt teach you reading and writing Hindi.

Right: My mother will teach you how to read and write Hindi

Incorrect: Can you please tell me the cost of this book?

Right: Can you please tell me the price of this book?

[We tend to use ‘cost’ and ‘price’ interchangeably. When you purchase an item, the amount of money that you pay to the seller is a price. But the amount of money or expenses the seller spends to manufacture and market that product is its cost.]

Incorrect: We decided to pass away our time in the Library.

Right: We decided to pass our time in the library.

Incorrect: I beg pardon from you.

Right: I beg your pardon.

Incorrect: Please shut up! I have lost my patience.

Right: Please shut up! I have Lost patience.

Incorrect: Can I know the name of your favourite teacher?

Right: May I know the name of your favourite teacher?

Incorrect: Tomorrow, the classes will begin at 11 a.m. in the morning.

Right: Tomorrow, the classes will begin at 11 in the morning.

Incorrect: What is your good name?

Right: May I know your name?

Incorrect: The examination is approaching near and the syllabus is not yet completed.

Right: The examination is approaching and the syllabus is not yet completed.

Incorrect: Ask him to sit besides me while filling the admission form .

Right: Ask him to sit beside me while filling the admission form.

Incorrect: My neighbours son is in boarding.

Right: My neighbour’s son is in the boarding school.

Incorrect: The village girls go to school by foot.

Right: The village girls go to school on foot.

Incorrect: No Less than ten students were injured in the accident.

Right: No fewer than ten students were injured in the accident.

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The biggest hurdle when you write is the starting point the first line. We have seen, innumerable pictures of crumpled paper around the spot where people wrote by hand or using a typewriter. Today we simply stare at the blank screen on the PC or a laptop or the mobile notebook. Oh, how do I start my letter, story, novel, poem, class essay?

Yes, the starting line is crucial. Cross it with confidence, with aplomb, with a beautiful sentence. It can be a quote, a statistic, a proverb or just a thought. it can contain a mystery or say something unbelievable. it Can provoke, or make a critical remark about something we all Love. It can be bold, soft, loud, gentle or harsh. Or a study of contrasts as in the famous first sentence by Charles Dickens in “A Tale of Two Cities.” Here it is:

“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way -in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only” How is it for an opening sentence? Gripping, isn’t it?

Here is the opening line from George Orwell’s “1984”: “It was a bright, cold day and, the docks were striking thirteen.” You do want to read the rest of the book, right? Or this. “Mr. and Mrs. Dursley, of number four, Privet Drive were proud to say that they were perfectly normal, thank you very much.”

You know who wrote this, right?

Whatever it may be, make sure that kindles the readers interest. Make it compelling. It should, hook the readers and funnel their curiosity. Great writers have always given a lot of thought to how they kick-start their story/novel. Authors have admitted that they draft and re-draft that first line to make it perfect. Good, writers know the worth, of the time spent on crafting the “flag-off’ sentence. Take your time, mull over it, write and read it a few times till you get it perfect.

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How do we write a descriptive essay, asked the students? Here are some pointers. First, think of the “Why?” What will your essay tell your readers? Your descriptive essay should create a verbal, picture of the thing/place/event/feeling you wish to write about. It should get your reader engaged, in the sight, sound, touch, taste and, smell of the place/event you describe. Your essay is a success if you can get your reader to visualise your words of description. You need to show – not tell the reader the beauty of your subject by illustrating it.

Be sure of the topic.

If the question paper says, “Describe a place you, visited,” make your decision. Which place will this be? Take one (it is “place”, not “places”) and recall everything you noticed while you were there. What did it took like? How big was it? What was remarkable about the place? What were the people like? The shops? Monuments? What experiences in the place left a deep impression on you?

Form an introductory paragraph.

Start with a bit of drama. Create a scene that will hook your reader at once. It can be something like, “My encounter with the city turned out to be a tourist’s nightmare.” Tell the reader what happened and then go on to say how you warmed up to the place.

If you are writing about a person, put in some drama the way you met him/her. Or describe an incident in his/her life that impressed you. See that the introductory paragraph sets the tone for the rest of the essay. Tell the reader what the subject of the essay is dearly.

Create a roadmap

The next step is to write a thesis statement. This is a single idea that will dominate the essay. Writing a thesis statement helps to focus your thoughts on the topic. It emphasises the purpose of the essay and streamlines the way the information conveyed to the readers. The thesis statement forms the roadmap of the essay. It could be something like, ‘This popular seaside city attracts millions of visitors all year; I wondered what it would offer me by way of memories.”

Get to work!

One way to write the description is to follow the spatial order. Write what you see to your right, left, in front. What can you see above? “From where I sat, I could see the spire of the church to my right and a row of pretty houses to the left.”

Idea 2: Draw five labelled columns on a sheet of paper, each one headlined by one of the five senses – the taste, sight, touch, smell and sound of your topic. Write the feelings you associate with the topic in the appropriate column. These sensory details wilt help you with material to fill up the essay. Make your description”spicy” and interesting. “I walked following the heady aroma of strong coffee and reached a small chocolate shop that had a bubbling outdoor chocolate fountain.”

When to start:

Once you have the information, start to write. See that all your sentences support the main thesis statement. You write just one essay at a time. So do not deviate from the topic. Flesh out your paragraphs with interesting (and funny!) descriptions. “Where is the coffee smell from , I wondered, till I realised the fountain was pouring out coffee-scented chocolate. This is a coffee chocolate city!”

Set your paragraphs.

Let each paragraph describe one aspect of the city. You can start with a brief history, and go on with the different sensations that you experienced, in the following paragraphs. Use the standard five-paragraph format. Use the Compare-contrast tool in your description. Which place did this city remind you of? How can it be compared to the city that you come from? Mix long and short sentences judiciously.

Conclude with a flourish.

“Cannot believe a week has passed, since I set foot here!” “It is already time to leave!” Them make a brief summary of what you, have written so far. XYZ is a city of clean beaches, wonderful promenades, historical monuments, calm and serene by lanes, houses with window-boxes of flowers…” Remember, what people read last is what they remember most!

Wrap it up!

See if your essay meets the requirements of the word limit. If it is too short, add your feelings about the object. Write a “clincher” sentence. “As I board the flight out of this city, what souvenirs do I carry with me? Sure, some were bought at shops. But the ones that will stay with me are the memories of the wonderful hospitality of the people, the Lovely beach, the food and the quaint atmosphere that is so welcoming. I know I will come back here.”

If it overshoots the word-Limit cut out the clichés — phrases that mean nothing, like “as you know”, “I think”, “I feel”, “as mentioned before”. Write direct sentences; avoid the passive voice. React, the essay carefully. Check for any grammar, punctuation or spelling errors. Turning in the essay with mistakes shows carelessness and lack of pride in your work. If you find sentences that are not particularly descriptive, rewrite them before proofreading. React the essay aloud to see if the sentences flow naturally. Reacting it to a friend or a helpful relative will also help.

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There is no way you can escape talk about climate change today. And a lot is written about it – its definition, reasons for it, how it affects us, remedial action. Every time I read about climate change I find new words and phrases related to it. As someone put it. “The Language surrounding climate change is changing right alongside the climate itself.” How many of the words and phrases mentioned in this article you, are familiar with?

Climate change:

The phrase “climate change” began Life as “global Warming.” It began to be used in the 1950s and was explained, as: “a long-term rise in Earth’s average atmospheric temperature.” In 1896, Swedish, scientist Svante Arrhenius declared that global warming existed and the reason was human behaviour. However, writers and speakers found the term, “global warming” confusing. Would the Earth just continue to get warmer and warmer and eventually have no winter at all? Scientists and, science writers needed a term that described the phenomenon in a better way. So they chose the term “climate change.”

Greenhouse effect:

This term began to be used in 1975. It came from theory that greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, water vapour and methane led to atmospheric heating. This let the sun’s energy through to the ground but impeded the passage of energy from the earth, back into space. This “greenhouse effect’ contributed, to global warming. The phenomenon, similar to how heat is trapped, inside ct greenhouse, was first explained by Joseph Fourier in 1827.

Global Warming:

The term “global warming” was recognised, and used widely in the late 1980s, after NASA scientist James Hansen told the U.S. parliament that there was clear cause-and effect relationship between greenhouse gases and global warming. In 2006, when former Vice-President Al Gore released the documentary An Inconvenient Truth in which he talks about carbon emissions, the phrase “global warming” got a big boost.

Polar Vortex:

The term polar vortex has been used widely across the world since 2014. The term came into existence to describe weather that brought extremely cold temperatures to parts of North America and Europe. The vortex is “a mass of swirling cold air that naturally exists at the Earth’s poles,” and in the Northern Hemisphere, during winter, the vortex expands, sending blasts of Arctic air to Canada and the U.S. This causes wild weather events described as “polar vortex.”

Green New Deal:

In February 2019, Senator Ed Markey and Representative Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez of the U.S. Congress (parliament) introduced, the Green New Deal (GND), a plan to fight climate change. The plan asked for investments in clean-energy jobs and, infrastructure, with the aim of “decarbonizing” the economy by shifting away from fossil fuels. The plan, is modelled on former President Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s New Deal in the 1930s. The word, “Green” was added to show that the plan was “environmentally sound, or beneficial.”

Microplastics:

This term, alarms naturalists and, environmentalists, and should alarm us too. Plastic reaches oceans and waterways, and then degrades into smaller pieces. Plastic pieces that are less than five millimetres in length have been called microplastics since the 1990s. They are now actively polluting every patch of water on Earth. They have been found in the Arctic, in the fishes caught across the globe and in human stool.

Single-use plastic

This term is a rage now, with governments thinking seriously of banning them. Single-use plastics are plastic items used once and they thrown away, like water bottles, straws and carry bags.

Ocean acidification:

Scientists believe that along with the landmass and the atmosphere, the oceans are also getting warmer. This causes ocean acidification. It means the ocean is becoming more acidic, and, the ocean floor is slowly being dissolved by the acid in the water. Scientists warn that something similar happened, during the Permian-Triassic period, leading to over 90% of marine species becoming extinct.

Climate refugees:

A refugee is “someone who is forced, to flee for their own safety, especially to a foreign country.” Since 2008 more than 24 million people have been displaced by extreme weather. Droughts, floods, deadly storms and heavy snowfall have driven people out of their homes to temporary shelters. These are the climate refuges. The term “climate refugees” was first coined in the year 1995.

Negawatt:

“Negawatt A negavvcitt is “a unit of energy that is saved by conserving energy.” The term derives from, “megawatt” unit of measuring electricity. Negawatt is the opposite of megawatt – “nega” is short for “negative.” The term has been around since 1984. Scientists give us proof to show that creating energy-saving technologies may be even more beneficial than trying to find alternative energy sources. Efforts Like the Green New Deal tell us to use energy carefully, reduce energy spending and get negawatts. So the term “negawatts” is being used often. Solastalgia

Climate change isn’t just having a disastrous effect on our environment. It’s also having an effect on our mental health and well-being. Environmental change can cause real distress and anxiety. People are traumatised by sudden floods, storms and severe drought. Wildfires triggered by climate change disrupt people’s Livelihoods and Iifestyles. In the early 2000s, environmental philosopher Glenn Albrecht named, this environmental distress solastalgia. In a 2007 report of drought and coal-mining in Australia, Albrecht wrote that “people exposed to environmental change experienced negative affect that is exacerbated by a sense of powerlessness or Lack of control, over the unfolding change process.” The word “Solastalgia” combines the Latin solacium, (“comfort, solace”) with the Greek algos, “pain.”

Use these words when you speak and write. Knowing the right words to discuss the sorry state of our environment and the reasons for the degradation will help to find ways to solve problems. Language is a powerful tool to express our anxiety. It helps to start discussions on what we need to do collectively to reverse the damage caused by climate change.

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It is not always easy to ask questions in class. You may have a doubt, and you may even have a teacher who encourages student participation in class, and yet, getting your voice heard amidst 40-60 children needs strategy. You can scream your head off to be heard, but that may invite punishment.

A better option would be to tweak the way you ask questions and pose them in a dear voice. And of course, be patient and wait for the right moment.

Here are some strategies:

After an absence

When you’re absent from class and you return the next day, you naturally want to know if you missed anything. I have heard students says, “I was absent yesterday, can I have the quiz paper now?” This is rude. Others ask: “Did I miss anything yesterday?” That’s a strange question, because those who are absent certainly miss lessons. Will the class do nothing just because some were absent?

So try this: “What did I miss yesterday when I was absent?” You’ll get a much better response.

Before a test

When you ask, “Is this included for the test?” you actually mean, “Should I be paying attention to this?” The answer is simple: “Yes, pay attention.” So, do not ask this question.

For real uses

There are teachers who take a tot of interest in what students learn and step outside the text to bring in other relevant facts. Some students say, “When am I ever going to use this?” That sounds rude and seems to question the teachers good intention.

So, change your words to ask, “Could, you give me a real-world example of how this information can be used?” That’s what the teacher wants to hear and you’ll get a much better response to future questions.

To be excused,

If you have to leave the classroom in the middle of a lesson, it is not a good idea to say, “I am going to the wash/rest room” Even the more polite “May I go to the wash/rest room?” is not quite the way to ask for permission. I have heard students launch into a complete explanation of why they have to leave. That is quite unnecessary.

Whenever you want to be excused, when in the company of people – whether its classmates, co-workers, bosses or relatives – say just that: “May be excused?”

Time it right

Wait for the right time to get the teacher’s attention. Most teachers give students a chance to ask questions and get their doubts cleared. So wait. If the teacher stops during the course of the lesson to let you ask questions, use that opportunity. If the teacher does not invite questions, wait for a pause before asking.

Be polite, get noticed

Raise your hand. This is the most common anal polite way of letting our teacher know that you have a question. It is a silent signal that you need clarification about something. It shows that you are willing to wait and not interrupt the lesson or disturb the class. You get noticed in a room full of students. Keep your hand up until your teacher acknowledges you.

Direct attention

If the teacher fails to notice your raised hand for more than five minutes, say. “Excuse me,” in a soft tone. That is bound to attract the attention of the teacher. Wait until you are called before you begin talking.

Always be polite. Repeating “Excuse me!” and talking over your teacher will make you look like you’re trying to disturb the class.

Make it short

Keep your question brief. Ask for specific information. Long-winded questions eat into the time the teacher has in class to complete her work. So stick to the point and, do not begin with an introduction. Avoid: “Ma’am you told us yesterday that…..” OR “My friend, and, I were discussing this lesson and…” OR “I was reading the questions at the end of the lesson…”

Make your question specific. Start with a question word: who, what, where, when, why, how.

Pay attention

Listen attentively to the answer. Do not look around the class when the teacher talking to you. Do not interrupt. If you want to remember the answer word-for-word, take notes after informing the teacher. Once you have the answer, thank the teacher. If you’re still having trouble grasping something, ask the teacher for clarification before you move on.

One at a time

Avoid, asking several, questions at the same time. The teacher may not remember all those questions. Also, she may not have time to answer all of them at once, especially if it’s near the end of the period. Also, other students may have questions of their own.

If you have several doubts, the best option is to approach the teacher after class or during recess. If your questions are related, ask them one by one.

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How to form

1. We use the imperative (or the command) form to give orders or directions in English. We can use the imperative form to advise and to warn. Adding the word “Please” makes the order polite. “Eat the vegetables!” “Switch off the fan and lights when you leave the room.” “Do not make noise.” “Complete your homework before going to bed.” “Do not speak with your mouth full of food.” “Turn left and go straight on.”
2. To make the imperative, use the infinitive of the verb (to go/ to come/ to walk/ to clean) without ‘to’: “Practise singing for at least an hour every day.” “Be careful.” “Please take a seat.”
3. To make a negative imperative, put “do not” or “don’t” before the verb. (Don’t is more informal than “do not”.) “Don’t go!” “Do not walk on the grass.”

Where to use orders

You often see the imperative form in instruction manuals or when someone tells you how to do something.

A recipe book is written in imperative sentences. There are often “sequencing” words to show the steps in the process. For example. “firstly”, “secondly”, “next” and “finally”.

You can also say “after that” instead of “then”, and “first”/ “second” instead of “firstly” and “secondly”.

Example: Simple instructions to plant a tree.

First, choose a healthy sapling.

Then choose a spot that doesn’t have too much shade.

Next, dig a hole measuring one foot by one foot – see that the hole is two-feet in depth.

After that, fill the hole nearly to the top with a layer of small gravel, sand, mud + compost – in that order.

Then gently place the sapling in the middle of the hole. And the, press the mud on the sides to ensure that the sapling stays finally in the spot.

Finally, spray water around the root gently with a water can.

Which verbs to choose

Verbs plays an important role while giving instructions. It is very important to choose the correct verbs when you give advice/ instructions/ directions. This helps to remove doubts and confusion in what you want to convey.

Examples:

Turn on /switch on… “First, turn on the computer.”

Turn off / switch off… “Turn off the lights when you leave.”

Take off / remove… “Take off / Remove your shoes before you enter the house.”

Take out… “Take the dirty clothes out of the box and put them in the washing machine.”

Attach / connect… “Connect the wires.”

Check / make sure… “Check that the pockets are empty before you put your jeans in the washing machine.”

Proceed / continue… “Continue to stir until the mixture is thick.”

Plug in… “Plug the modem in.”

Put back / replace… “Replace the lid after taking out the jam.”

How to improve the method

When you give instructions you can help the listener with extra information and advice.

Try adding the phrases given below in bold to make your instructions effective.

Remember to… wear garden gloves when you dig with a sharp implement.

Be careful not to… pour too much water.

Try not to… pull the sapling every day to see if it is glowing.

You need to… place a tree guard to protect the sapling.

It’s important to… see that the sapling gets adequate amounts of sunshine.

It helps to… take the advice of a gardener in the choice of the plant you want.

Be sure to… inform people around you that you have planted a sapling.

Always… choose a tree that grows strong roots.
Never… plant a coconut tree in a street.

Checklist for writing instructions

Keep in mind the following points

1. Use short sentences and short paragraphs.
2. Arrange your points in logical order.
3. Make your statements specific.
4. Use imperative sentences.
5. Put the most important item in each sentence at the beginning.
6. Say one thing in each sentence.
7. Choose your words carefully. Write in direct, simple words.
8. Read, follow your instructions to carry out the work (try out the recipe). Are your instructions working?

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Have you heard the phrase “any x, y, and z”as in“I don’t have to worry about every x, y or z?

We use these last three letters of the alphabet when we want to refer to some unknown people. Though these are merely letters, they stand for people. We use these three alphabets in maths, in algebraic equations. Where did they come from? How did they become important?

The origin of x

Some people think that the letter X is used to represent the unknown in both English and Mathematics because the letter has had to struggle to establish its identity. Interesting theory, right?

X is derived from the Phenician letter samekh, meaning “fish.” It was used by the Phoenicians to represent the /s/ consonant (denoting a hard S sound), the Greeks borrowed the samekh around 900 BC and named it Chi.

Once they became masters of the arts, the ancient Greeks set about to simplify the digraph (“a pair of letters representing a single speech sound”) /ks/, which is used most prominently throughout the western regions of Greece. So the X was born.

The Romans later adopted the X sound from the Chalcidian alphabet, a non-ionic Greek alphabet. They borrowed the Chi symbol, consisting of two diagonally crossed strokes, from the Greek alphabet to denote the letter. This symbol also represents the Roman numeral X or “10”.

In other words, the Romans took the /x/ sound from one alphabet (Chalcidian) and combined it with the Chi symbol from another alphabet (Greek) and thus X was born.

The X has been around for ages and has had different stories and sounds associated with it. It can mean Christ, like the X in Xmas, stand for a chromosome, and even show up in friendly letter writing (XOXO).

How to say x

In its pronunciation, the letter X has been compared to a chameleon. For example, X is used to establish the /ks/ sound (called “voiceless velar fricative”), as in wax and fox. To get this sound, you place the back of the tongue at the soft palate. You do the same for X’s/ gz/ sound, as in auxiliary and exhaust. X can also take on the /z/ sound as in xylophone and Xanadu, the hard /k/ sound as in excite, and /kzh/ as in luxury. The X can also be silent as in Sioux (Falls), and the French loan-word faux.

The origin of y

Y came in late to join the English alphabet. It was called ipsilon in German, upsilon in Greek, but we do not clearly know what it was called in English. The Y sound as in yard, yes, yield is from Old English words with initial g- as in got and y- as in yet, which were considered the same sound. These were written as 3, known as yogh. The system was altered by French scribes, who continued with the way Europe used –g- and from the early 1200 s used –y- and sometimes –gh- to replace3.

This is how it was formed.

Y started its journey in Classical Greek as –ik (os) and went to Classical Latin –ic (us). In Old English, it was recognised as –ig and in Middle English it became –y.

Y, as you know, is used to make adjectives from nouns. Example: Snow – snowy. Having, full of, or characterized by: dirty, healthy rather, somewhat: yellowy, chilly, dusky inclined or tending to: drowsy, sticky suggestive of, somewhat like: wavy fit or suitable for: Christmassy quality or condition: jealousy, zoanthropy a shop or goods of a (specified) kind: coopery a collective body of a (specified)kind: soldiery It is there for terms of endearment – for “little dear.” [kitty, Billy, daddy]

The origin of Z

Z’s history includes a time when it was used so rarely that it was removed from the alphabet altogether.

Where did Z come from?

The Greek zeta is the origin of the letter Z. The Phoenician glyph zayin, meaning “weapon,” had a long vertical line capped at both ends with shorter horizontal lines and modern capital I.

Then it evolved into the Greek zeta. The top and bottom lines became elongated, and the vertical line got slanted, connecting to the horizontal lines at the top right and the bottom left. It finally looked like what we call Z today.

Why did Z get removed from the alphabet?

Around 300 BC, the Roman Censor Officer Appius Claudius Caeus removed Z from the alphabet. He pronounced the letter Z as archaic (old-fashioned.) He said the pronunciation of /z/ had became /r/ by a process called rhotacism, rendering the letter Z useless.

How did Z get added back?

Two hundred years after Appius Claudius Caecus threw the letter Z out, Z was reintroduced to the Latin alphabet. At the time, it was used only in words taken from Greek. Because of its absence and reintroduction, zeta is one of the only two letters to enter the Latin alphabet directly from Greek and not Etruscan.

Z was not always the final letter of the modern English alphabet, although it has always been in the 26th position. For years the & symbol (now known as the ampersand) was placed at the end, When pronounced “and.” When people recited the alphabet, Z was said with the Latin “per se,” meaning “by itself.” The position and pronunciation eventually got clubbed together: “X, Y, Z, and per se and” became “X, Y, Z, and ampersand.”

These days Z is the least used letter in the alphabet, though American English uses it more often than British English. Early English did not have a Z but used s for both voiced and unvoiced soft consonant sounds (sibilants). Words in English that originated as loan words from French and Latin are more likely to be spelled with a Z than an S, such as blazon or buzzard. Also, American standardization modified /z/ suffixes to more accurately reflect their pronunciation, changing –ise and –isation to –ize and -ization.

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Once in my twelfth standard class, I watched students cry when I read the poem “Home they brought the warrior dead,” I am sure you giggled, yawned, listened with rapt attention, dreamed or clapped in the end – while listening to poem being read to you. Was that the power of the words? Was it the way it was read? Both?

Many things contribute to the “enjoyment” of poetry. Sometimes it is the depth of the thought. Sometimes it is the impression the words leave with you.

Sometimes it is because it is the kind of poem you like. Sometimes it is the way the words are arranged, the imagery you get. It is also possible that you are not impressed at all! But you try to understand the poem, see how you feel about the thoughts expressed. You are expected to “react” to a poem, not analyse it. If you are not sure about the poem’s meaning and the poet’s intent, you read it again and again till you are able to assess your feelings towards what the poet says.

Keep these in mind, when you start reading a poem.

[1] The title: Sure, a poem’s title may not always be of significance. It may not appeal to you. But some certainly draw you to explore the contents. Examples: Paradise Lost, Do Not Go Gentle Into The Night, The Road Not Taken. It is true that sometimes the title does not say much (The Snow Man by William Blake), but most reveal a hint. Read on, and then ask yourself; Does the title reflect the true meaning of the poem?

[2] Words/Phrases: Ask: Why has the poet chosen this word/phrase? Why did Wordsworth write”Ten thousand saw I” not “Ten thousand I saw”? Why are some words repeated (Of the bells, Of the bells, bells, bells, bells, bells, bells, bell by Edgar Allan Poe)? Which word/phrase stands out? (“Men may come….forever” – The Brook by Tennyson.) Is there a word/phrase that has more than one meaning? Are there words which convey opposite thoughts (“Darkness visible” – John Milton, Paradise Lost)?

[3] Style/Diction: Is the poem in an elaborate style, with a lot of descriptive lines? Is it a simple or a dense one in meaning? Is it formal, conversational, abstract, descriptive? How would you describe the language and vocabulary (register): informal, formal, common, casual, neutral, mixed?

[4] Tone: What seems to be attitude of the poet towards his audience? Does he speak directly (‘Tell me not, in mournful numbers”)? What is his attitude towards the subject of the poem? Is the tone serious, ironic, argumentative, somebre, abrupt, playful, cheerful, sad, or a mix of one or more of these? Does it keep changing? Is it clear/unclear?

[5] Word Order: What is special about the way the words are arranges? What effect does it bring? How is “Her arms across her chest she laid” different from “She laid her arms across chest”? Are the lines made of long sentences or fragmented phrases? Does it jump around before flowing smoothly?

[6] Punctuation: Punctuation in poems is often different from the punctuation in prose. Poems are made of lines and not sentences, so they stop abruptly, have dashes or commas to mark the end of a line. Punctuation is often used to create rhythm. Sometimes the lines stop without punctuation and the thought continues in the next line. So check out: Is the punctuation unusual? Does it add to the beauty of the poem?

[7] Figures of speech: Poets use figurative language to present their ideas in condensed form. There are similes and metaphors, alliteration, repetition, personification and onomatopoeia. Most of all, there is imagery – word pictures that bring the description alive. Here is an example from the poem “Egret Rising.”

Like a phoenix rising not from flames but watery reeds,

The egret flapped its wings and gracefully rose up from the weeds.

The flash of white feathers shone against green leaves and clear blue sky,

The majestic bird set a course unknown and swiftly away did fly.

So, look for exaggeration (hyberbole: “Ten thousand saw I at a glance”), metaphors and unusual construction of lines.

Hope is the thing with feathers –

That perches in the soul –

And sings the tune without the words –

And never stops at all –

From Hpoe Is The Thing With Feathers by Emily Dickinson

[8] Rhythm and Meter: The first poems you read had a regular beat and a rhyme scheme. This was to help you memories the poem. Remember “Twinkle, twinkle little star?” Poems are musical. So look for the rhythmic patterns.

“Tyger! Tyger! Burning bright

In the forests of the night

What immortal hand or eye Could frame thy fearful symmetry?”

Read the poem aloud, and the beat becomes very clear.

[9] Speaker/Narrator: Who is the speaker? Is he talking to the reader?  Is he a narrator telling a story? [Read The Highwayman by Alfred Noyes.] Ask: What is happening in the poem? Is is action? Drama? Who tells the story of The Ancient Mariner by Coleridge?

[10] Time/ Setting: These are important to understand in a narrative poem. What was the World understand in a narrative poem. What was the world like when the poet wrote these lines? Is a sense of place clear (urban, pastoral, forest, desert, beach, etc.), or does the poem seem to occupy an abstract time and place (such as mental or emotional state)?

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When you go outside on a pleasant day, you may feel thrilled to breathe the air and enjoy the freshness of nature. Likewise, when something is a breath of fresh air, you receive the same excited feeling from being around it as you do when you step outside into a fresh breeze.

When something is a breath of fresh air, you enjoy it greatly. It is new, thrilling, and invigorating to you.

This idiom comes from two idioms widely used before the 1800s. The two idioms from where is originates are breath of heaven and breath of spring, both of which mean the same thing.

First, people often use this phrase to describe their joy when they are in a great mood. Second, people use this phrase to describe the need for something new when in a bad situation.

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While it may sound easy, writing humour is not the easiest thing to do. Things that sound funny when you are saying them suddenly fall flat when you put them across in writing, jokes get lose in between long sentences, and soon you will have readers who are wondering what you are trying to say rather than rolling over the floor laughing.

On the other hand, humour done well is an amazing tool to engage your reader. So the question is how do you write a humorous piece?

Topic

Begin with a topic that can be handled in about a paragraph or two rather than start off on an entire story or a full-length essay. For example, take off with a prompt that goes. “That’s the way we do it around here!” or “My dad was at his embarrassing best”. Now think of a possible character in your head who could be saying any of these two sentences. Why do you think this person/ animal/ object is saying it? What is the situation that has built up to this sentence? That’s what will define your funny lines.

A funny title

The title certainly gives a glimpse into what the content is like. So making it as funny as possible is a definite thumbs-up. One of the techniques for this is to use the title of an existing book or film or song. What’s the catch? It has to be really popular, especially among the audience who is going to read your work. If you have to explain how your title is linked to the other work, then, it kills the purpose. For example, the Dr. Seuss book “I Can Read With My Eyes Shut” can be twisted to “I Can’t Do This Even With My Eyes Open” for your first prompt. The title of the show “How I Met Your Mother” can be changed to “How I Met My (Embarrassing) Father” for the second prompt.

Twisting is great

While on the subject of twisting, you can use it for proverbs or idioms too. “The early bird catches the worm” can be made humorous by saying either “Being the early bird is okay but dare not be the early worm – you are sure to be eaten!” or “The early bird catches…. a nasty cold if it’s freezing outside!” The key to humour that readers enjoy is to not let them predict what will come next. While their brain readies to read something familiar, surprise them with an absolutely different thing. A good way to practise this is to meddle them during your free time. Take a handful of proverbs and work them around.

Using humour strategically

Rationing your humour is very important. You can’t do the same trick over and over again. Use humour in different styles while writing. You saw how we used it in the title. We could also use it in creating bullet points, for instance listing out. “Ways To Survive An Embarrassing Pet” or “How To Not Stick Out Like A Sore Thumb”. You can use it as side notes to the self or the reader, when you take a break from telling your anecdote or the story. You could even add an actual joke! But make sure your writing is crisp, not long-winded. Can you think up some other ways in which you would like to use humour?

Self-deprecating humour

Laughing at oneself is an art. Oscar Wilde wrote, “I am so clever that sometimes I don’t understand a single word of what I am saying.” It’s short. It’s funny. And it says with you. Create characters that can be laughed at. Put yourself in the story and create funny situations. Check this out: “I have knack of walking into glass doors, I have done it at least 37 times (at last count) and now I am a pro at it.”

Do you have any such quirks that you could convert into humour? Bringing on the funnies is an exercise that requires a lot of work, and constant practice.

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Most people will agree that English is relatively easy to learn. Its grammar is not very complicated, and once you know the various parts of speech and how they are placed in a sentence, you can write without errors.

Yes, pronunciation of English words can lead us to embarrassing situations, and if you are talking to someone from the United States, you may feel that you and your listener are speaking in different languages – but you can communicate and write without making any mistakes.

But there’s one area where we may slip up – and that it is in choosing the right words to convey our meaning. This may (a) lead to confusion in the reader, if you are writing and (b) lead to misunderstandings with listeners if you are talking.

Check these words out

Grammar writers have been putting together pairs of words – some are similar sounding, some are not – that we often misunderstand. These have been referred to as “pairs of confusables” because we seem to go wrong and interchange these words in our writing.

One example is how we use “for” and “since”.

“Since” is used to denote the period of action from a particular time/day/week/month/year.

Since (from the time) he became the principal, Mr. Lal has been living in the school campus.

Mr. Lal has been living on the campus for a long time (over a period of time).

“Since” starts the action from a particular point of time. “For” stand for an indefinite period of time.

I have not seen him since he returned from Africa. I have not seen him for a long time.

Wrong: I have not seen him “since a long time.”

Here is a list of confusables. Try and understand how they are used!

Ton & tonne

Ton: A unit of weight equal to 2000 pounds.

Example: the stone weighted a ton.

Tonne: A metric ton

Effect & affect

Effect: (noun) result, outcome

Example: His teacher’s words in the remote school had a great effect on the boy.

Affect: (verb) influence, change

The monsoon rains affected the crops badly.

Adopt & adapt

Adopt: take on, accept

Example: The kind man adopted all the stray dogs in the area.

Adapt: get used to, adjust

Example: The village boy had to adapt to life in the city.

Weather & whether

Weather: climate (cloudy, sunny, cold)

Example: Weather conditions were cloudy when we set out.

Whether: a word used to show choice

Example: Whether you come or not, we will go on the picnic.

Remain & remind

Remain: stay, left

Example: The weather remains the same throughout the year.

Remind: to speak again of something

Example: Please remind me of the meeting.

Lose & loose

Lose: not able to find

Example: The tourists lost their way in the forest.

Loose: slack, opposite of tight

Example: The yoga teacher asked us to wear loose clothes for the class.

Pier & peer

Pier: a platform in the sea

Example: The boat was tied to the pier.

Peer: to look closely

Example: The thief peered into the darkness of the house.

Resign & re-sign

Resign: quitting one’s job. It is pronounced with “z”

Example: The chairman of the company resigned when he was elected to Parliament.

Re-sign: with the hyphen: to sign a contract again. The “s” here is pronounced as “s”, and you stress the first syllable “re”.

Example: Mr. Lal re-signed the contract for AC maintenance.

Advice & advise

Advice: a noun it stands for well-meaning suggestion.

Example: The principal gave important advice on the first day of school.

Advise: This too is well-meaning advice, but used as a verb.

Example: The doctor advised the patient to go for walks every day. The word “advise” is used in the past tense.

Compliment & complement

Compliment: saying something nice about someone. The word id used as a noun and a verb.

Example: He was warmly complimented by the audience for his brilliant speech. He accepted the compliments gracefully and thanked them.

Complement: two things that go well together or complete each other.

Example: His height complements his aggressive style of playing.

Salt and sugar complement most Indian cooking.

Disinterested & uninterested

Disinterested: impartial, objective

Example: It was clear that the winners were chosen by a panel of disinterested judges; they all deserved to be selected.

Uninterested: bored or not wanting to be involved with something.

Example: As the speaker droned on about his theories on life, it was clear the audience was uninterested; most of the members were found yawning.

Historic & historical

Historic: famous, important and influential

Example: While in the U.S., we visited the beach in Kitty Hawk where the Wright brothers made their historic flight.

Historical: related to history

Example: Many countries have very strict laws about preserving their historical monuments.

Further & farther

Further: is used in abstract situations to show distance.

Example: “You say that I deliberately delayed the project, nothing is further (away) from the truth. If you have any further (more) complaints please approach the boss. Do you have any further questions?”

Farther: we use this when we are talking about the physical distance.

Example: How much farther do we have to go before reaching the temple? If we drive any farther today, we will be too tired to get up tomorrow.

Hanged & hung

Hanged: to dangle someone or something from a peg/nil/rope/frame. The word “hanged”, the past tense form of “hang” is used for the deadly habit of hanging people to death.

Example: Charles the first, the King of England was overthrown and hanged in the public square.

The judge sentenced the murderer to be hanged.

Hung: dangled with the help of something.

Example: I spent all Sunday cleaning the house. I dusted the photographs and hung them in the hall.

Remember: People are hanged. Things like photographs and clothes are hung.

Addition & edition

Addition: something that is added to an already existing group.

Example: With the addition of modern jets, the army became very strong.

Coffee tastes better with the addition of sugar.

Edition: An edition is one in a series of printed material.

Example: Did you read the latest edition of the book?

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Ah, the “one armed bandit”! It is the name for a gambling machine that pays off according to the matching of symbols on wheels spun by a handle (the arm). “Bandit” because you lose more often than you win.

The phrase “at one fell swoop” is said by Lord Macduff in William Shakespeare’s tragedy Macbeth when he learns that Macbeth grief-stricken, utters, “What, all my pretty chickens and their dam at one fell swoop?” his phrase is a metaphor comparing Macbeth’s act to that of a hawk swooping down on defenceless prey, and fell here means “fierce, cruel, terrible.” The phrase conveys both the suddenness and fierceness of the attack as well as the helplessness of the victims.

Today the phrase “at one fell swoop” is used to mean “all at once” or “with a single concentrated effort.” The phrase can also be “in one fell swoop.”

An event or business might be said to be a “one-horse affair,” (dull), you might find yourself in a “one-horse town”, with nothing to do.

“One-trick pony” refers to someone or something that is skilled or successful in only one area (like a circus pony which has been taught one trick). In American slang, it means a person or thing that has little to offer.

The verb “one-up,” meaning “to outdo or get an advantage over (someone),” entered English in the 1960s and is a back-formation from “one-upmanship”, meaning “the art or practice of outdoing or keeping one jump ahead of a friend or a competitor.”

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The adjective “two-bit: owes its measuring of “cheap,” “trivial,” or “petty” (“two-bit town”) to the value of two coins. The “bit” as a coin has stood for various values over the years, but it has been generally held to be equal to 1/8 of a U.S. dollar or 12-and-a-half cents.

In the early 1900s, two cents (or two cent’ worth of opinion) came into English as a word for an opinion offered on a topic under discussion. The idea is that the person is offering a contribution that could very well be significant or valuable or could be insignificant or valueless – either way at least they contributed. It is often used like this: “Offer your two cents,” or “put your two cent’s worth.”

The idiom “in two shakes” – it goes back to the 19th century – means “very quickly or soon,” and some dictionaries connect it to the lamb’s shaking of its tail. “If you are smart, you find he really does have an uncle, and he can take you to this uncle in the office behind the ticket window, and in two shakes your ticket is in your hand – Salman Rushdie, The New Yorker, 22 July 2019.

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The term “three-ring circus” can literally refer to a circus with simultaneous performances in three rings. Figuratively it can denote something wild, confusing, engrossing, or entertaining. It was first introduced at the turn of the 20th Century.

Three sheets in the wind, or three sheets to the wind, used to mean “drunk,” goes back to the early 19th century. The first known use in print is in British writer Pierce Egan’s book Real Life in London (1821): “Old Wax and Bristles is about three sheets in the wind.” The “sheets” in this expression are not bedclothes, as you might have guessed, but neither are they sails. The sheets are ropes or chains that are attached to the lower corner of a ship’s sails and used to extend or shorten the sails. If you were on a three-sailed vessel and all three sheets were loose—in the wind—the boat would wallow about uncontrollably much like a staggering drunk. Old-time sailors would say that someone only slightly tipsy was “one sheet in the wind,” while a rip-roaring drunk was “three sheets in the wind.”

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The Four Freedoms are the four basic human freedoms identified by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in his State of the Union message in January of 1941. They are the freedom of speech, the freedom of religion, the freedom from want, and the freedom from fear of physical aggression. In August of 1941, Roosevelt and Winston Churchill included the Four Freedoms in the Atlantic Charter, which advocated the restoration of self-government to peoples forcibly deprived of it.

“A four-letter word” is literally a word with four letters, such as “word”. The term “four-letter-word” also indicates obscene words. This use goes back to the 19th Century.

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In the U.S., a store that sells inexpensive items is known as a “dollar store”, “five-and-ten-store, “five-and-dime store”. The usage goes back to the 1860s and 1880s. “Five-and-dime” became more common in the 20th century.

In the miners’ lingo, “take five” means “take a break from work,” after hours of continuous labour. “Take five” or “take ten” originated in the jargon of U.S. mining.

Five was the lucky number for the superstitious French fashion designer Gabrielle ‘Coco’ Chanel. In 1921 she chose the fifth day of the fifth month to introduce her new brand of perfume which she called Chanel No. 5. At that time its scent was unlike any others in a market dominated by floral perfumes. It was a huge success and today it is one of the most famous – and most expensive – perfumes available.

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People have been using a form of the phrase “sixes and sevens” since the 14th Century. Originally, it referred to carelessness or risk-taking, probably came from dice playing. In a game of dice, to bet on a roll of a five and a six was extremely risky and often foolish. Over time, the early phrase “to set on cinque and sice” was altered to “to set on six and seven,” and the meaning was broadened to denote not only genera carelessness but the confusion and disorder that might result from it. Later it was further altered to the modern “at sixes and sevens” with the meaning “in a state of disorder or confusion.”

“Six-pack” has referred to six bottles or cans packaged and sold together since the 1940s. In the 1990s, six-pack came to refer to a set of strong, well-defined abdominal muscles visible on a person’s body and looked like a “six-pack” of bottles of cans.

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The phrase “seven seas” (sail the seven seas) has been used metaphorically since the 19th Century, to evoke all the waters or oceans of the world – and specifically the Arctic, Antarctic, North and South Pacific, North and South Atlantic and Indian Oceans.

On the seven-segment displays of pocket calculators and digital watches, 7 is the number with the most common glyph variation (1, 6 and 9 also have variant glyphs). Most calculators use three line segments, but on Sharp, Casio, and a few other brands of calculators, 7 is written with four line segments because, in Japan, Korea and Taiwan 7 is written as ? in the illustration to the right.

7 is considered a lucky number. There are 7 days of the week, 7 continents, 7 Wonders of the World, as well as 7 Deadly Sins.

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The expression “eight ball” for the black pool ball numbered 8 is from the early 1900s, and the expression “behind the eight ball,” meaning “in a highly disadvantageous position,” entered American English. The expression may have come from a pool game in which players attempt to pocket the numbered balls in order – with the eight ball to be pocketed last. If the player hits the eight ball first, he is penalised; if he pockets the eight ball, he loses the game.

“A piece of eight” is an old Spanish silver dollar, or peso, which once had the value of eight Reales and was therefore stamped with a large figure 8. In Colonial America, the piece of eight became legal tender, and it remained so till the Civil War. Its value was almost the same as that of the United States dollar.

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 “On cloud none” means “a feeling of well being or elation.” It derives from the nine classes of angles in Christian cosmology. The ninth and highest class – the seraphim – are, according to one source, “one cloud nine” by virtue of their close proximity to God.

Another possible explanation connects cloud nine with Dante’s Divine Comedy. Dante’s “Paradiso” depicts a series of heavens, the highest being the ninth. The souls in the ninth heaven are in the greatest state of bliss because they are close to God.

Meteorologists classified clouds in the late 19th Century and this was officially accepted by the scientific world. Ninth in the classification is the big, puffy cumulonimbus cloud.

The expression nine days’ wonder is based on the proverbial belief that something novel retains attention for just nine days. A “nine-day wonder” is something that creates a short-lived sensation.

The expression “the whole nine yards” is used to include all of a related set of circumstances, conditions or details. Example: “A huge Thanksgiving dinner was served: turkey, mashed potatoes, green bean casserole, cranberry sauce, rolls and pie – the whole nine yards.”

Why nine yards, not eight, seven or ten? A yard is a unit of measurement and the whole nine yards could be any of these: The nine cubic yard capacity of either a cement mixer or the scoop on a front-end loader, the nine yards of cloth required to make a formal dress (a full gown or a saree); the configuration of old square-rigged ships having three masts, each of which could have three yards (long spars tapered toward the ends that supported and spread the head of the square sails) – “the whole nine yards” in total.

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The expression “I wouldn’t touch it with a ten-foot pole” conveys contempt or extreme dislike. Originally, a ten-foot pole was simply a measure of distance. Nineteenth-century songwriter Stephen Foster used it to describe the depth of a mud hole in his popular song “Camptown Races.” In 1884, American author William Dean Howells used the phrase metaphorically in his novel the Rise of Silas Lapham: “Do you suppose a fellow like young Corey… would touch mineral paint with a ten-inch pole?” wouldn’t touch it with a ten-foot pole” emerged around the same time.

Ten-gallon hat has been used to refer to a cowboy hat since the early 1900s. The hat like the gallon measurement, was extremely large, perhaps the largest hat in the West. Large cowboy hats became known as ten-gallon hats. Another explanation is that the wide-brimmed hats worn by cowboys and ranchers were originally decorated with braids. A Spanish word for braid is galon.

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I consider the learning of the subject and the predicate – the way the sentence is divided – the major need for writing without error. The subject tells you what the sentence is talking about. The predicate tells you what the subject is doing, or the subject’s state of being (I am tired). You need to know your subject and the predicate to ensure that the verb (in the predicate) matches the subject in number and tense. If your verb does not match your subject, the sentence is grammatically wrong.

Incorrect: My kitten always chase its tail. The verb “chase” does not agree with the singular subject “kitten.”

Correct: My kitten always chases its tail.

Determine with subject and then choose the verb to match it! If you are not sure of the number and the tense of the subject, you will end up choosing a non-matching verb.

Incorrect: A section of top leaders want Mr. Sukhu to continue in his post.

The verb should be “wants” since the subject is “section” (singular). The writer of his sentence has taken “leaders” as the subject. It is not!

So, how do I find the subject? Pick the verb and place “what” or “who” before it.

“Who” is for people and “What” is for the rest. The answer is your subject. So, who want Mr. Sukhu to continue? “A section” (not all leaders). “Section” is singular, so you have to use the singular verb “wants” to match “section.”

When you learn to identify the subject of a sentence you realize that

1. The subject need not look like a standard noun, for example, a book, boy, tree. Swimming is a good exercise. Subject: Swimming
2. The subject is not always found in the beginning of the sentence. After a long walk, he found the house. Subject: He
3. The subject is not always present in the sentence. It can be implied, understood. Please switch off the fans. Subject: You. In most command (imperative) sentences, which are addressed to people, “you” is dropped.
4. The verb is not always placed next to the subject, as in “The kite flew.”

Sentences are made where there is a group of words between the subject and the verb. “The beauty of the mountains, rivers, snow and the gardens of Kashmir overwhelmed me.”

Subject: The beauty

Verb: Overwhelmed

5. Infinitives like “to walk”, “to sit” can also be subjects. They do the work of nouns.

To err is human; to forgive is divine.

Subjects: “to err”, “to forgive.”

6. The verb need not always follow the subject as in “She completed the work before the children arrived.” Subject: She, Verb: Completed.

The verb may be placed BEFORE the subject.

There are many people in the garden. Subject: People. Verb: Are.

7. What do you do with questions? For example: What is your age? In this sentence, the subject (your age) is deliberately placed after the verb (is). First rewrite with the subject in the beginning. Your age is what? Now, separate the subject and the predicate. Your age – subject, is what – predicate. The predicate starts with the verb.
8. Sonia’s friends have all left the town. In this sentence, Sonia is not the subject. It is “Sonia’s friends.” So, pick your verb, place “what” or “whom” before it and the answer is the subject! Who have left the town? Sonia’s friends.

Predicate

A predicate is the part of a sentence, or a clause, that tells us what the subject is doing or what the subject is. In the sentence, “The man is sleeping under the tree,” the part “is sleeping under the tree” is the predicate. This part tells us what the man is doing.

Let’s take a simpler sentence. He dances. He is the subject, the doer. Dances is the verb and the predicate.

He dances at all local functions. In this sentence, He is still the subject. It does not change. But the words “at all local functions” have been added to the predicate “dances.”

How can we be sure which part is the predicate? For example, look at this sentence.

While herding cattle, he blew a whistle.

We first find the verb. The verb is the word that shows action or the state of being (is/was) and changes according to number and tense.

In this sentence, “blew” is the verb. You pick the verb in the sentence, place what or who before it and the answer is the subject, right? Then, the predicate starts with the verb.

In the sentence above, “He” is the subject (who blew? He). The predicate is, “blew a whistle while herding cattle.” We add “while herding cattle to the predicate because it points to action and has nothing to do with the subject or the doer. The subject is the “doer.”

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Apophenia is the common human tendency to see meaningful patterns in random data. For example, gamblers claim to perceive patterns in the numbers that appear on lottery tickets, playing cards or roulette wheels. If the same series of numbers or a particular number repeats far too many times to be a coincidence (but it is in fact a random occurrence), this is taken as a winning pattern!

People believe that they have a ‘lucky number’ if a few positive events happen to fall on that date. They start seeing he number everywhere or other numbers which add up to it! So-called ‘cursed’ numbers like 13 or 666 may have arisen due to apophenia.

The term was coined by German psychiatrist Klaus Conrad in 1958 to describe a phase of schizophrenia in which patients have delusions of seeing and hearing things which are apparent to no one else.

However, today apophenia does not necessarily signify mental illness. Those who have a creative imagination such as artists or writers are also known to display aphophenia.

Pareidolia is another form of apophenia in which people infer shapes and sound patterns in meaningless data. The best known instance is seeing shapes in clouds or concluding that the static hiss of a radio has a message in it!

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