Category Ancient India

          The Vijayanagara Empire rose in southern India in the 14th century. It was founded by two princes of the Sangama dynasty, Harihara and Bukka in 1336. They were actually ministers of the ruler of Kampili in Karnataka. The Sultan of Delhi, Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq captured them and sent them back to Karnataka to suppress revolts there. The brothers then formed the Kingdom of Vijayanagara after revolting and defeating the Sultan.

          The capital was named ‘Vijayanagara’ which means ‘the City of Victory’; in honour of the grand victory they had scored against the Sultan of Delhi. Later, the empire also was called by this name.

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          The early Pandyan kingdoms declined with the rise of the Cholas in the 9th century, and were in constant conflict with them. The Pandyans allied themselves with the Sinhalese and the Cheras in harassing the Chola Empire, until they found an opportunity for reviving their fortunes during the late 13th century. Sundara Pandyan I burnt the Chola towns of Tanjavur and Uraiyur, and shot into prominence. But the Pandyans really entered their golden age under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan who expanded their empire into Telugu country and invaded the northern half of Ceylon. He defeated the Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas and the Pallavas.

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          The Bahmani and Vijayanagara kingdoms were constantly at war over the control of three main areas. These areas were the regions between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers, the Krishna-Godavari Delta area, and the Konkan coastline.

          The reason for this continuous conflict was that these areas were very fertile, and also contained important cities.

          Though the Bahmani king Mohammed Shah I attacked Vijayanagara and plundered its capital, he could not hold on to it. His successor, Mujahid could not capture Vijayanagara either, though he tried twice.

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          The Hoysalas were a family that ruled from about AD 1006 to about 1346 in the southern Deccan, was later moved to Halebid.

          The dynasty, founded by a tribal chief Nripa Kama, is well remembered for the beautifully carved temples of Belur, Halebid, Somanathapur, Shravanabelagola and others. The Hoysala kings were famous for their religious tolerance. They were also great patrons of art and culture. The main rulers of this dynasty were King Vishnuvardhana and Vira Ballala-II. Through Vishnuvardhana’s expansive military conquests, the Hoysalas achieved the status of a major kingdom. He wrested Gangavadi from the Cholas in AD 1116, and moved the capital from Belur to Halebid.

          Vira Ballala-II was the greatest monarch of the Hoysalas. During his rule, the kingdom expanded considerably.

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        During the reign of the Guptas, giant strides were made in science, mathematics, astronomy, religion and Indian philosophy. The peace and prosperity created under the leadership of the Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavours. Music, architecture, sculpture and painting were at their best during the period of Gupta rule.

       The stone temples of Deogarh and Bhitergaon are a few specimens of Gupta excellence in architecture and sculpture. Another area of Gupta expertise was their metallurgical skill. Various copper statues and images of Buddha reflect the craftsmanship of the Gupta period. The pillar at Delhi made of iron at the time of Samudragupta is another awe-inspiring monument. Many of the finest paintings of ancient India were executed during the Gupta period, the best example being the murals at Ajanta caves. It was also a golden age for Buddhist art. Uniform artistic standards were set chiefly by workshops in Mathura and Sarnath.

        The Gupta reign saw the exchange of intellectual ideas, which is attributed to royal patronage and contacts with foreign people of both east and west. The greatest Sanskrit poet, Kalidasa, who wrote Meghadutam and Kumarsambhavam, was in Vikramaditya’s court. Abhijnanashakuntalam, the great play of Kalidasa, exemplifies the literary craftsmanship of this period. The Panchatantram, a collection of fables, was another popular work written during the Gupta age.

        The Sanskrit dramas Mrichakatikam and Mudrarakshasam were written during Gupta reign too. This period also saw many celebrated astronomers like Aryabhatta, as well as legal experts and efficient administrators.

        The decimal numeral system, including the concept of zero, was invented in India during the reign of the Guptas. The cities were clean, well planned and prosperous, and the markets were full of different things to buy. Trade flourished, and gold coins were plentiful. Education was considered important, and the Nalanda University was built during this time.

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       Samudragupta, ruler of the Gupta Empire and successor to Chandragupta I, is considered to be one of the greatest military geniuses in Indian history. It is said that he fought in over a hundred battles which left scars all over his body.

       Samudragupta defeated four kings of northern India, twelve kings of the Deccan, battled against the Sakas, and received tribute from many rulers, including the ruler of today’s Sri Lanka. Samudragupta performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice to mark his sovereignty over lands that stretched from Assam in the east, to Punjab in the west. Is it any wonder then, that he was called the Napoleon of India?

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       The name Vikramaditya means ‘Heroic Sun’. Chandragupta II took this name because of his many conquests, which brought the whole of western India under Gupta rule, and established an empire that stretched from the Arabian Sea in the west, to the Bay of Bengal in the east.

      There are many stories and legends about Vikramaditya. He was an ideal king, who was as wise as he was brave and strong. He was a great patron of arts, and nine great figures of ancient literature known as the navaratnas (nine gems), graced his court. Matchless in war, matchless in forgiveness, and an excellent ruler, he won the hearts of his people. His reign saw an era of peace and prosperity.

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       The Gupta Empire was one of the largest political and military empires in the ancient world. It was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around AD 320 to 600.

       The Gupta dynasty, which followed the Kushana dynasty, ruled an empire that covered most of northern India, the region presently in Pakistan, and what is now western India and Bangladesh. The dynasty was established by Sri Gupta. However, very little is known about the first two rulers, Sri Gupta and Ghatotkacha. The most famous Gupta rulers were Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II or Vikramaditya.

       Chandragupta I conquered much of Magadha, Prayaga and Saketa. His empire stretched from the river Ganges to Allahabad. He was the first of the Guptas to be referred to as ‘Maharajadhiraja’ or ‘King of Kings’, which was indeed a high and mighty title. Samudragupta expanded the empire until it extended from the Himalayas to the river Narmada and from the Brahmaputra to the Yamuna.

        Samudragupta was not only a great warrior, but also a great patron of art and literature. He was a poet and musician himself. He was a firm believer in Hinduism, but was considerate of other religions, and allowed Sri Lanka’s Buddhist king to build a monastery at Bodh Gaya.

       Chandragupta II called himself Vikramaditya. He extended his empire from coast-to-coast, and established a second trading capital at Ujjain. His reign is remembered for its very influential style of Hindu art, literature, culture and science. The last two Gupta rulers were Kumaragupta and Skandagupta.

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       The Chola Empire stretched over all South India and the neighbouring islands. The period of the Chola Dynasty was described as the golden age of the Tamil culture.

       The rulers of this great empire built magnificent temples that bear testimony to their ideology and the grandeur of their architecture and civilization.

       The great temple of Thanjavur was built in a few years, from 1003 to 1010, during the reign of the great king Rajaraja, the true founder of the Chola Empire. The major temples are the Brihadiswara Temple at Thanjavur, the temple of Gangaikon-dacholisvaram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram. The whole combined site is known as the Great Living Chola Temples.

       The imperial rulers of the Chola Empire had developed the Dravidian style of temple architecture almost to perfection. A special feature of the Chola architecture is the purity of artistic tradition. The Brihadiswara Temple was declared by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in the year 1987.

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          Thirukural is an important work of Tamil literature by the poet Thiruvalluvar. It is written in a poetic form called Kural, which means rhyming couplet. It is considered the first work to focus on ethics and expounds various aspects of life.

          Thiruvalluvar was a sage and philosopher who is believed to have written Thirukural about 2000 years ago. It has an orderly arrangement of 1330 Tamil couplets, which are divided into 133 chapters. Each chapter has a specific subject ranging from ‘ploughing a piece of land’ to ‘ruling a country’. Themes such as virtue, love and morals, happiness and prosperity are written in verses that are simple and short. Thirukural is considered an all-time Tamil classic, which has been translated into most Indian languages and some European languages as well.

          The popularity of Thirukural lies in the fact that it has something noble for the ordinary man, the administrator, the king and the ascetic. It is global in perspective, and it is as relevant today as when it was written hundreds of years ago.

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         Tamil was the oldest literary language of south India. The first period of Tamil literature is associated with the Sangam Era.

         Tamil tradition refers to three literary academic meetings called by the Pandyan kings, where poets and scholars assembled, along with kings and princes. These assemblies were called Sangams and they met at Madurai between 500 BC and AD 500. The first was believed to be attended by legendary sages, but its entire works have perished. Of the second Sangam, only one work survives-Tolkappiyam. It is a work on Tamil grammar, literature, tradition and sociology. The poets of the third Sangam wrote Ettutogai or eight anthologies. These anthologies contain well over 2,000 poems ascribed to more than 200 authors. The Sangams are of great importance to us not only for their literary value, but because they are one of the main sources used for documenting the early history of the ancient Tamil country.

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            Did you know that the word ‘dakshinapatha’ is derived from the roots of two Sanskrit words dakshina for south, and paths for road? The ancient texts use the expression Dakshinapatha as a name for both the southern high road and for that part of India that lies south of the Vindhya Mountains and the Narmada River. The first reference to Dakshinapatha occurs in the Rig Veda where it refers to the region of exile. In the opinion of several scholars, this means the areas in the south beyond the limits of the Rig Vedic culture. Both the Mahabharata and Ramayana also refer to Dakshinapatha. Today, we call this region, the Deccan.

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          There is some confusion among scholars as to which is the oldest Dravidian language. It is generally accepted that Kannada is the oldest spoken language, for it is at least 2000 years old, while Telugu is the most widely spoken. At the same time, Tamil has the oldest literary works, and Tamil literature goes back several centuries before the birth of Christ. According to legend, Tamil was a gift from the sage Agastya to mankind, and he was also the first grammarian in Tamil. Malayalam, the language of Kerala, is believed to have evolved from Tamil much later.

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          The three main kingdoms in South India between 400 BC and AD 300 were the Pandyans, the Cheras and the Cholas. The Pandyan kingdom was an ancient Tamil state in South India.

          The Pandyans ruled from Madurai, and occupied the southernmost parts of the Indian peninsula and parts of the southeast too. The Pandyans excelled in both trade and literature. They controlled the pearl fisheries along the south Indian coast, between Sri Lanka and India, which produced some of the finest pearls known in the ancient world. The Chola Dynasty was a Tamil dynasty that originated in the fertile valley of the Cauveri River. Karikala Chola was the most famous among the early Chola kings, while Rajaraja Chola, Rajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I were notable emperors of the medieval Cholas.

          The Chola capital was at Uraiyur. They were great patrons of Tamil literature and their zeal in building temples have resulted in some great works of architecture.

          The Chola kings were avid builders, and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship, but also as centres of economic activity. Kerala, and some parts of southern Tamil Nadu, formed the erstwhile Chera kingdom. They rivaled the neighbouring dynasties of the Cholas and Pandyans in prosperity.

          The Cheras had strong overseas trade links with the Romans in natural produce such as spices, ivory and sandal. In all these kingdoms, the land was fertile and, rice, sugarcane, fruits and pepper were grown in abundance. Their palaces were well decorated, and filled with beautiful objects. Therefore, on the whole, it was a time of prosperity.

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          Do you know that all forms of Indian classical dance are based on a book called the Natyashastra? It was written by a great sage called Bharatha around the fourth century BC. It is the source of not only all forms of Indian classical dance, but also music and drama. In fact, it is regarded as the fifth Veda.

          According to the Natyashastra, all dance forms revolve around the nine rasas or emotions. They are happiness, sorrow, anger, compassion, disgust, wonder, fear, courage and serenity. Hand movements or mudras, are used to express the emotions clearly to the audience. The Natyashastra is the world’s first book on stagecraft. Bharata’s ideas are the key to an understanding of Indian arts, music and sculpture.

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          Sushruta, who lived in the 6th century BC in ancient India, was the first surgeon in the world. He lived on the banks of the Ganga in what is Varanasi today. Sushruta is the author of the book Sushruta Samhita, in which he describes over 120 surgical instruments, 300 surgical procedures and 8 types of surgeries.

          He was the pioneer in plastic surgery and cosmetic surgery, and the technique that he perfected for repairing the nose, is practiced almost unchanged to this day. His book contains the first known description of several operations. Sushruta was also the first surgeon to advocate the practice of operations on inanimate objects such as watermelons and reeds, thus laying the foundation for the modern practice of surgical workshops. He suggested that patients should be kept under sedation with wine, so that they are relaxed during an operation.

          His emphasis on personal cleanliness and sterilization of instruments are followed by surgeons till today. His numerous contributions to the science and art of surgery have given him the title ‘Father of Surgery.’

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          Ayurveda is an ancient system of medicine, and the Charaka Samhita is one of the oldest and most important ancient texts on Ayurveda. It is written in Sanskrit, in the form of poetry, as poems are easier to remember than prose.

          The Charaka Samhita has 8 sections and 150 chapters. It describes over 600 drugs that can be obtained from animals, plants and minerals. It also had a code of conduct for doctors. It says, “A doctor must not betray his patients even at the cost of his own life.” Some people believe the Charaka Samhita was written by a group of scholars. Others say that a famous physician called Charaka who lived during the reign of Kanishka, and was one of the founders of Ayurveda, wrote it.

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          Kanishka was the greatest Kushana ruler. He ruled from his capital, Purushapura between AD 78 and 120. He also constructed a city called Kanishkapuram. Kanishka conquered Kashmir. He also defeated the Chinese and the Saka rulers of Malwa and Gujarat. Kanishka was a great patron of medicine. A new school of art called Gandhara art developed during his time. This was inspired by Buddhism, though it has some Greek influence too. Kanishka is thought to have started the Shaka Era, which was later used as the official calendar of India.

          Kanishka worshipped many gods before he embraced Buddhism. Ashvaghosha, the Buddhist scholar, probably influenced Kanishka to become a Buddhist. Like Ashoka, Kanishka also worked for the spread of Buddhism. He took steps to repair many old monasteries. New ones were also built. During his time, Buddhism spread to China, Japan, Central Asia and Tibet. Kanishka is considered as the second Ashoka because of all these activities.

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          The Kushanas ruled over north India from AD 50 to 300. They belonged to the Yueh-chi tribe of China, which moved towards the west. Kujula Kadphises, a Yuch-Chi chief, who established himself in Kabul and Kashmir founded Kushana dynasty. It was one of the remarkable dynasties of ancient India, both culturally and territorially.

          The Kushanas had their capital at Purushapura (Peshawar) and expanded their empire on both sides of Hind Kush, Turkistan in the north and modern Afghanistan. The Kushanas opened the Silk Road, a major trade path for caravans carrying silk and other prominent goods from China to India and the Middle East. They enriched the cultural ethos of India, by linking Central Asian, Chinese, Indian and Persian cultures.

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          The fall of the Mauryan Empire gave birth to a new dynasty in the south called Satavahanas. It was Simukha, who founded this dynasty. It extended from the mouth of the Krishna River to the whole of the Deccan plateau. The Deccan, during their reign, was a hub of inland and maritime trade. The region between the river of Krishna and Godavari was full of ports, and it was throbbing with activity.

          Currency was in vogue to facilitate trade, and this was an era of great industrial and maritime activity. Buddhism flourished throughout the period, and the Satavahana kings constructed several Buddhist Stupas, Chaityas and Viharas. The Stupa at Amravati is known for its architectural beauty. The Satavahana kings ruled for nearly four hundred years. By the end of the 2nd century AD, their rule came to an end.

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          Megasthenes was a Greek historian from the kingdom of Ionia. The king Seleucus-I sent him as an ambassador to the court of King Chandragupta Maurya. His report about the culture, history and religion of India was the basis of western knowledge about India.

          Megasthenes described the people of Pataliputra as skilled in the arts, and as having plenty of nourishing food. There were not many thieves, and people often left their houses and property unguarded. He described the people of Pataliputra as uncomplicated in their manners, and as seldom going to court against one another.

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              Eight years after being crowned king, Ashoka decided to annex Kalinga, or present day Orissa, into his kingdom. This was the first and last battle that Ashoka ever fought. Though Ashoka won, he was horrified by the sight of the dead and wounded on the battlefield. Over one hundred and fifty thousand   soldiers were captured, and over one hundred thousand were killed. This experience changed Ashoka, and he swore that he would never wage war again. He took up Buddhism, and vowed to practice only virtuous actions in the future.

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          The most important development after the fall of the Mauryas was the arrival of foreign tribal groups into India. Around 200 BC, the Indo-Greeks from Afghanistan began to attack Indian territories. Ashoka’s weak successors could not withstand this invasion.

          The Indo-Greeks were, therefore, able to conquer large areas in India and establish kingdoms there. The most famous Indo-Greek was King Menander, also called Milinda. His capital was at Sakala, which is now Sialkot, in Pakistan. He was very interested in Buddhism, and his discussions with a great Buddhist scholar of the time have been put together in a book called ‘Milinda Panho’ or ‘The questions of Milinda.’ Milinda’s reign was long and successful. His coins testify to the prosperity and extent of Milinda’s empire.

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          Did you know that the national emblem of India has been taken from the Ashoka pillar at Sarnath, and that the Ashoka chakra on the Indian flag was Ashoka’s symbol for the wheel of Dharma?

          Ashoka spread the teachings of Buddha and his own messages by engraving them on stone pillars throughout his kingdom. Since he wanted his words to be everlasting, he chose a medium that would never rust or decay.

          The Ashoka pillars, as they are now called, were over forty feet high and extremely heavy. They are found from Afghanistan in the north to Karnataka in the south. The messages on these pillars were written in Pali, a simple form of Sanskrit, which the common people spoke during Ashoka’s time.

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          The great Indian emperor, Ashoka was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya. At his birth, his mother is believed to have said, “Now I am Ashoka”, which means ‘Now I am without sorrow.’ Therefore, the child was named ‘Ashoka’. In 268 BC, Ashoka was crowned king of Magadha, and he proved himself very courageous and a good administrator. He ruled over and empire that covered two-thirds of the Indian continent! He was the most famous of the Mauryan kings, and was one of the greatest rulers of India.

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          Chanakya, also known as Kautilya, became Chandragupta’s prime minister, and legend describes him as being the author of a book titled Arthashastra. ‘Arthashastra’ means the science of property and material success. This success includes political and diplomatic strategy aimed at uniting India.

          According to Kautilya, a ruler should use any means to attain his goal, and his actions required no moral sanction. The only problems discussed are of the most practical kind. Though kings were allowed a free rein, the citizens were subject to a rigid set of rules. Much of our knowledge about the state policy of the Mauryas comes from the Arthashastra, which is a treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy.

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            Chandragupta was the founder of the Maurya dynasty, which ruled ancient India for about 140 years. He was not born a prince. He came from an ordinary family and it is believed that Chandragupta was raised by peacock trainers.

           Some say, he came from a land of peacocks, and that is why he was called ‘Maurya’, a word that comes from ‘mayura’, which means peacock. Chandragupta was the pupil of a brilliant Brahmin called Chanakya. Under his guidance, he started taking over the small villages on the outskirts of the kingdom ruled by King Dhanananda. Finally, in 321 BC, he conquered the capital, Pataliputra, and overthrew King Dhanananda. Chandragupta’s troops conquered many north Indian kingdoms and claimed lands that stretched as far west as Afghanistan. In this way, Chandragupta united northern India under one ruler for the first time in history, and established the Mauryan Empire.

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          Alexander’s invasion resulted in the establishment of Greek settlements in India. It taught the Indian kings the need to be more united among themselves in order to fight off invaders. The skill and discipline of the Greek army inspired the need for a better army.

          Many small kingdoms were destroyed, leading to the establishment of a new empire. India thus came into contact with the European world, and land and sea routes to India became well known. The Greek influence on Indian art can be seen in the Gandhara sculptures, as well as in architecture and science. In short, the Greek influence restructured the Indian states and society, and changed the fabric of the North Indian artistic and scientific world.

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          As Alexander marched through India he fought battles, built altars, and founded cities. One city he called Boukephala in honour of his favourite horse Bucephalus, which died and was buried there.

          Other cities he called Alexandria in honour of his own name. As they journeyed, Alexander and his soldiers saw many new and strange sights. At last, Alexander reached the city of Lahore, and marched on to the banks of the river Sutlej beyond. He was eager to reach the holy river Ganges, and conquer the people there. However, his men had grown weary of fighting under the burning sun and torrential rains of India, and they begged him to go no further. Therefore, greatly against his own will, Alexander turned back.

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          The greatest battle fought by Alexander in India was at Jhelum. The Indian infantry attacked with 20,000 men and 130 elephants. The trumpeting, ferocious elephants were defeated by Alexander, but he suffered great losses, too.

          Porus, King of the Punjab, led the final elephant charge in person. He lost more than 12,000 troops and both of his sons were also killed in battle. Porus was finally captured and brought to meet Alexander. Porus was a magnificent figure of a man, tall and handsome. His bearing had lost none of its pride, and his air was of one brave man meeting another. He was a king, who was in the presence of another king with whom he had fought honourably for his kingdom. Alexander asked Porus whether he had any request. Porus replied that he only wished to be treated like a king. His answer so impressed Alexander, that he returned Porus’ kingdom to him.

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          Alexander the Great was the King of Macedonia in Ancient Greece. His father, King Philip, was a brilliant military commander and politician. He had built up a strong army, and dreamt of invading Persia. Philip was assassinated on the eve of his invasion of Persia. His son, Alexander, took over the reins of both his father’s army and kingdom when he was just nineteen! He carried out his father’s invasion plans at once.

          Schooled in war and politics by his father and in everything else by the legendary Greek philosopher Aristotle, Alexander was filled with knowledge of the world, and ambition for conquering it. In 331 BC, he defeated the Persian King Darius, and conquered Persia. However, Alexander was not satisfied. He wanted to conquer the world, and moved towards India. He entered India through the Khyber Pass. Astonishingly enough, Alexander brought with him a flotilla of war boats to cross the Jhelum River and his determination to succeed brought him victory after victory.

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          The Ajanta caves in Maharashtra are rock-cut cave monuments dating from the second century BC. They are famous for their magnificent paintings and sculptures that are considered masterpieces of Buddhist art.

          The paintings of Ajanta are vibrant with life, and are richly coloured. These paintings show the everyday life of the people as well as kings and courts, animals, birds, musicians and warriors. It is believed that highly skilled monks made these paintings to spread the teachings of Buddha, and to guide people in a righteous way.

          Do you know how these caves were discovered? Way back in1819, a party of British army officers was on a tiger hunt in the forest of the Western Deccan. They suddenly spotted their prey, on the far side of a loop in the Waghora River. The hunting party saw the tiger, silhouetted against the carved facade of a cave. On investigating, the officers discovered a series of carved caves, each more dramatic than the other. There are 29 caves in all. Five of them were temples and 24 were monasteries, thought to have been occupied by some 200 monks and artisans. The cave complex was continuously built until about AD 650. Today, the Ajanta caves have been recognized by UNESCO as one of the world’s greatest historical monuments.

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          The oldest university in the Indian subcontinent was Takshasila, or Taxila. It was the capital of the Budhhist kingdom of Gandhara and was located west of Rawalpindi in what is now Pakistan. The University of Taxila was a great centre of learning in the ancient world. Scholars came from all over the world to study here.

          It was famous for its schools of Brahminical studies, Buddhist philosophy, medicine, sciences and arts. Great scholars like Panini, Charaka, and Kautilya are believed to have taught there. Many of its students became great leaders, thinkers and scientists. The university came under Persian rule, and in 326 BC, it was surrendered to Alexander the Great. King Ashoka made it an important Buddhist centre in BC 261. It was destroyed by the Huns in the 5th century AD.

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          You must have read tales known as the Jataka Tales. The Jatakas are the tales about the former lives of the Buddha. Before he attained enlightenment, Buddha had been born as Bodhisattva. It is said that he was born again and again 547 times, sometimes in a human form, and sometimes as a bird or beast or fish.

          The Jataka deals with these lives of Buddha. These tales always begin with an incident in the life of the Buddha, usually a sermon he is giving, which he illustrates with a story from one of his previous lives. The Jatakas are primarily moral tales, illustrating the wisdom and goodness of the Bodhisattva figure.

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          All religions have their sacred scriptures upon which their doctrines are founded. For example, Christianity has the Bible, Islam, the Koran, and Hinduism, the Vedas.

          The sacred scriptures of Buddhism are the Tripitakas. They are written in the Pali script, and are made up of three parts, which are referred to as ‘baskets’. In fact, the very word ‘Tripitakas’ means ‘three baskets.’ One part is called the Abhidhamma Pitaka or the Basket of Dharma. It explains the principles of Buddhism. Another part is called Vinaya Pitaka or the Basket of Discipline. It deals with the rules to be observed by the monks. The largest and most important part is the Sutta Pitaka, or the Basket of Stories. It consists of the sermons and sayings of Lord Buddha. The number of volumes in the Tripitaka, which were compiled at various times differs, and is without parallel in any other religion.

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          Lord Buddha did not want his followers to worship his image, and so, for a long time, no figures of Buddha were drawn or carved.

          The earliest representation of Buddha was made through the stupas or mounds erected on the relics of Buddha. These mounds had external decorations on them, tracing various events in the life of Buddha. Symbols like a foot, sacred tree, holy seat or altar were also widely used to represent Buddha. The first Buddha statues were carved in stone in Mathura, near Delhi. The noteworthy characteristics of the Buddha statues were that the figures were always standing free or seated in the regular cross-legged religious posture.

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          The Buddhists began the practice of  creating temples by hollowing out rock faces. The monks needed places where they could pray and hold discussions in peace, and caves were ideal for this purpose. Gradually, these caves became temples or monasteries where the monks lived.

          The earliest Buddhist cave temple was found in Maharashtra, at Bhaja near Pune. It is more than 2000 years old. Instead of images, the presence of Buddha was indicated only by a stupa or mound in the early cave temples. In the later cave temples though, like the ones at Ajanta, many images of Buddha can be seen. The distinguishing feature of all the temples is a huge arched window that is found over the main entrance. The Ellora Caves near Aurangabad, and the Elephanta Caves near Mumbai, are other famous cave temples of this era.

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        Vajrayana Buddhism emerged in Tibet about the 7th century AD. Its prominent symbol is the ‘Vajra’ which means a diamond, or thunder bolt. It was the latest phase in the development and evolution of Buddhism.

        Vajrayana’s main claim is that it enables a person to reach Nirvana or freedom from suffering in a single lifetime, rather than passing through countless lives before achieving salvation. Vajrayana promises the ‘fast path’ to Buddhahood-a path that, in some Vajrayana traditions, brings magical powers.

        Vajrayana Buddhism lays great emphasis on mantras or incantations, mudras or hand gestures, and mandalas or diagrams of deities and other cosmic forces. It also involves for the first time, worship of female deities, of which the most important of all is Tara.

        Vajrayana Buddhism developed out of Mahayana teachings in Northwest India. It is also known as Tantric Buddhism, due to its reliance on sacred texts called tantras.

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          Buddhism does not believe in the existence of gods, in elaborate rituals, in the caste system, or in the worship of images. It teaches that everyone is equal, that nothing lasts forever, and that nothing happens by chance. Its aim is to attain ‘Nirvana’, which is the liberation of the soul from the cycle of life, death and rebirth.

          Buddhism is divided into two major sects – Hinayana and Mahayana. The Hinayana sect regarded Buddha as a great teacher, not a god.

          They believed that the only way to attain Nirvana was by leading a monastic life, and abandoning all worldly pleasures. The Mahayana sect worshipped Buddha as God. They believed that enlightenment would come to all those who followed the path of righteousness, irrespective of their status in society. The Mahayana Buddhists also believed that love and compassion are as important as knowledge. Mahayana Buddhism became very popular in India, China, Tibet, Japan and Central Asia. Hinayana Buddhism spread more in Burma, Sri Lanka and the countries of South East Asia.

          The teachings of Buddha had not been written down during his lifetime. So, six months after he died, or attained Nirvana, the first Great Buddhist Council was held at Rajgir, under the patronage of King Ajatashatru. Its objective was to preserve Buddha’s sayings, and to lay down monastic discipline or rules. In the centuries that followed, four Buddhist councils were held to discuss Buddha’s teachings. It was during the fourth council that the division of Buddhism into two sects was finally accepted.

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          Buddha is one of the greatest philosophers of India. He was a prince and his original name was Siddhartha. Siddhartha spent his boyhood at Kapilavastu and its vicinity.

          At the age of twenty-nine, Siddhartha suddenly abandoned his home, his wife and child to devote himself entirely too spiritual pursuits and yogic practices. Do you know why? One day, Siddhartha left the walled enclosure of the palace and roamed about in the town along with his servant, to see how the people were getting on. The sight of a weak old man, a sick man, a corpse and a monk finally induced Siddhartha to renounce the world.

          Siddhartha realized that worldly life with all its luxuries was worthless, and that the pleasure obtained from worldly things was fleeting. At the same time, he noticed that the monk looked serene and peaceful, and decided that he too, would find a way to get relief from the endless cycle of birth, suffering and death.

          Siddhartha left his palace and family, and wandered for many years in search of enlightenment. Finally, as he sat under a Peepul tree, he freed himself of all attachments and discovered the truth, and the secret of happiness. He became Buddha or ‘the Enlightened One’. According to Buddha, people can get free of the cycle of birth, suffering and death by leading a balanced life. He stressed the importance of being good, of learning not to care about worldly things, and of meditation. Buddha had many followers in his lifetime, and after his death, Buddhism, the religion he founded, spread throughout India and other parts of Asia.

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        It was Mahavira who gave Jainism the proper form of a religion. He is also considered as the 24th and last ‘Tirthankara’. In Jainism, ‘Tirthankara’ is a great soul who becomes the bridge to enlightenment.

        Mahavira was born in Kundagrama, near Vaishali in Bihar, in 599 BC.

        Mahavira was a prince, and his name was Vardhamana. He was a very brave child who once mounted a charging elephant! At the age of thirty, Mahavira renounced his kingdom, and family.

        It is believed that Mahavira did not consume even water, for two days. He pulled out his hair, and wore only a piece of cloth. Later, he gave half of that garment to a beggar. After a little over a year, he gave up clothes altogether. Mahavira’s teachings are full of universal compassion. He taught about the internal beauty and harmony of the soul. Mahavira preached that right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct together would lead one towards liberation.

        Mahavira himself is also called ‘Jina’, which means conqueror, for he was a spiritual conqueror.

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        The Nandas have a special place in Indian history as the first empire builders of India. They inherited the large kingdom of Magadha, and wished to extend it to even more distant frontiers. The first Nanda ruler was Mahapadma, and the last was Dhana Nanda. At the time of Dhana Nanda, the Nandas had an army consisting of 80,000 cavalry, 2,00,000 infantry, 8,000 armed chariots, and 6,000 war elephants!

          The Nandas were very wealthy, and they got their wealth through the taxes they collected. They also built canals and carried out irrigation projects. They were not popular rulers, but their powerful army was famous. In fact, many historians hold the view that Alexander the Great confined himself to the plains of Punjab for fear of the mighty Nandas!

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          Have you heard the story of how the Greeks won a battle against the kingdom of Troy by building a huge wooden horse? The horse was so big that Greek soldiers could hide inside it. The Greeks left the horse outside the gates of Troy, and pretended to leave. When the Trojans saw the horse, they took it inside their city, for it was so magnificent. At night, while the Trojans slept, the Greek soldiers came out of the horse and destroyed Troy. Did you know that a similar thing happened in India too? Pradyota, king of Avanti, one of the most prosperous states in the north, wanted to capture the king of Vatsa, Udayana. Therefore, he built a huge wooden elephant, hid his soldiers inside it, and left the elephant in the forest. Udayana was very fond of elephants, and when he heard that there was a huge elephant in the forest, he went in search of it. He was then captured by Pradyota’s soldiers, who emerged from the elephant and brought to Avanti. The story has a happy ending though. Pradyota’s daughter fell in love with Udayana, and helped him to escape. They married and she lived happily as his queen!

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          Bimbisara was a king of Magadha. His capital was at Rajgir. Bimbisara became king at the age of fifteen, and reigned for fifty-two years, until his kingdom was taken over by his son Ajatashatru. It is said that he had 500 wives, although we know about only four of them!

          Bimbisara’s expansion of his kingdom, especially his annexation of the kingdom of Anga to the east, is considered to have laid the foundation for the later expansion of the Mauryan Empire. He is also known for his cultural achievements, and was a great friend and protector of the Buddha. The king’s support greatly helped the growth of Buddhism in India.

          Legends tell us that Bimbisara’s son Ajatashatru, who imprisoned the king, is said to have starved him to death.

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          Prehistoric ‘Megalithic’ or large stone graves are found in great numbers in south India, especially in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. As you know, the pyramids are massive monuments built over a tomb that contained all the objects which would be useful for a dead person in his afterlife.

          Similarly, megaliths were large stone constructions built over a tomb. Rectangular chambers made of large stone slabs are very common. They also contained jewellery, axes, arrowheads and household articles for the afterlife. In this respect, they are similar to the pyramids of Egypt. There were also urn burials, in which the bones of the dead person were put in a pot or urn and then buried in a pit.

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       The ‘Mahajanapadas’ or great states, were the many new states that existed in the 6th century BC in the northern part of India. They came into being when people started settling in one place, in groups. They usually settled in a fertile area, and wanted to defend their land, crops and houses from other people. So, these states had their own armies, and were ruled by kings, or ruling councils.

       The Mahajanapadas were 16 in number. Anga, Kashi, Kosala, Chedi, Vatsa, Matsya, Surasena, Asmaka, Avanti, Gandhar and Magadha were ruled by kings or monarchs. The kings in these states had supreme authority.

       The Mahajanapadas of Vajji, Malla, Kuru, Panchal and Kamboj were republican states, and so were other smaller states like Lichhavi, Shakya, Koliya, Bhagga, and Moriya. These republican states had a ‘Ganaparishad’ or an assembly of senior and responsible citizens. It had the supreme authority in the state. All the administrative decisions were taken by the assembly. Of all these, Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti and Magadha were the most important ones.

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       There were many strange and elaborate rituals and sacrifices in Ancient India. In the later Vedic period, that is, between 1000 and 600 BC, kings performed the Ashvamedha Yagna, or horse sacrifice. It was one of the most important royal rituals of the Vedic religion. Only a king could conduct the Ashvamedha.

       Its purpose was to acquire power and glory, to establish sovereignty over neighbouring provinces, and to ensure general prosperity for a kingdom. A pure white horse was marked with a victory card and allowed to roam about freely. If anyone stopped the horse, the king had to go and defeat him in battle, and bring back the horse. The horse was then sacrificed along with many other animals.

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       There will be hardly anyone who has not heard of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata in India. These two great epics are studied in every nook and corner of the country. They were written in Sanskrit, and were then translated into various languages.

       The Ramayana was written by the Sage Valmiki. The Mahabharata was written by Veda Vyasa. The Mahabharata is much more than an epic; it is a magnificent piece of literature, which, for thousands of years, has been a part of India’s culture. A sweeping tale of the feud between two families, it is the mother of all epics. It spans hundreds of years and deals with a wide range of topics. In fact, its introduction says, “What is found here may be found elsewhere. What is not found here will not be found elsewhere.”

       The Ramayana was originally written in the Sanskrit language. Later on, it was translated into other languages in different versions. The main story of the Ramayana is about Lord Rama. Rama was born in a royal family and was supposed to be the king, but because of his step mother, he was exiled from his kingdom for fourteen years. During this period, his wife Sita was kidnapped by a demon called Ravana, who was the king of Lanka. Rama, with the help of his brother, Lakshman, and an army of monkeys under the leadership of Hanuman, rescued Sita. However, the Ramayana is about not only Lord Rama and his attempt to rescue his wife Sita, but also about devotion, loyalty, family roles and respect to elders. These great epics are the backbone of our great Indian tradition and culture. They have a very great influence on Indian heritage. They convey deep-rooted messages, which have had great impact on Indian society. The essence of these epics is Dharma, righteousness, good conduct, fearlessness, duty and dedication.

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       The Upanishads are sometimes called ‘Vedanta’, which means ‘the end of the Vedas.’ They are part of the Vedas, which primarily discuss meditation and philosophy, and are seen as religious instructions by most schools of Hinduism.

       Studying the Upanishads is like sitting down near a spiritual teacher in order to receive instruction. They are not concerned with gods, worship or sacrifice. Instead, they try to explain the world and the cycle of life and death. The Upanishads were written around 600 BC, and are about 200 in number.

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       In Sanskrit, the word ‘Veda’ means knowledge. The Vedas are the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism. The four main Vedas are the Rig Veda, the Sama Veda, the Yajur Veda and the Atharva Veda. The Rig Veda is a collection of inspired songs or hymns, and is the main source of information on the civilization of that time.

       The Rig Veda is considered the most precious gift that the Aryans have passed on to us. The Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda were compiled after the age of the Rig Veda, and are ascribed to the Vedic period. The Sama Veda is purely a collection of melodies. The hymns in the Sama Veda, used as musical notes, were almost completely drawn from the Rig Veda. Musical notes indicated how the verses should be chanted. In effect, it is a shortened and musical version of the Rig Veda.

       The Yajur Veda practically served as a guidebook for the priests. It contains hymns and rituals to be performed while chanting the verses. The Atharva Veda contains magic spells and chants to cure diseases, and ward off danger. If you have fever, or have been bitten by a snake, the Atharva Veda has a chant to cure it! According to Hinduism, the Vedas are of divine origin, and it is believed that all human knowledge is available in the Vedas in symbolic form.

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       Do you know that the caste system in India originated in the Aryan society? The Aryan society was divided into four varnas or castes, which were decided by the occupation one followed. The four varnas were the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and the Shudras. The word ‘varna’ means colour, and in those days, the four castes were supposed to wear different colours.

       The Brahmins wore white, the Kshatriyas wore yellow, the Vaishyas wore red, and the Shudras wore black. The Brahmins were teachers, priests and intellectuals. The Kshatriyas were warriors and administrators. The Vaishyas were farmers, merchants and business people, and the Shudras were artisans and workers. In the early days, a person was not born into a caste. However, with the passing of time, the caste system became more rigid. A person’s caste was decided by birth, and the Brahmins and Kshatriyas began to consider themselves superior to the other two castes. The system of untouchability was one of the evils that originated as a result of the caste system.

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       Vedas are not only religious texts but also socio-cultural and literary documents of ancient India. The Rig Veda, the oldest literary document of India, is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns dedicated to the gods.

       The Rig Veda tells the story of Prajapati, the first god who created the world. His mouth, arms, thighs and feet turned into different groups of people. These groups became the different castes. The Rig Veda mentions many different gods, and it is the first written evidence of Hinduism. It refers to some rituals such as marriage and funeral rites, which differ little from those practised today.

       The Rig Veda is also considered the source of much Indian thought. It is believed among the world’s oldest religious texts in continued use.

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       You may have heard of the Aryans who invaded India thousands of years ago. The Aryans were a tribal and nomadic people who lived far away in Euro-Asia. They were unquestionably a tough people, and were fierce warriors.

       The Aryan culture was oriented around warfare, and they were very good at it. They were superb horsemen and rushed into battle in chariots. The Aryans were ruled over by a war chief, or Rajan.

       Somewhere in the early centuries of the second millennium BC, the Aryans began to migrate southwards in waves of steady conquest across the face of Persia, and the lands of India. There, they would take on the name ‘superior’ or ‘noble’ to distinguish themselves from the people they conquered. Their name is derived from the Indo-European root word, ‘ar’, meaning ‘noble’.

       The Aryans first settled along the Indus River, in the same place where the Harappan people had lived. They settled down, and mixed with the local Indian people. They lived there from about 1500 to 800 BC. It seems to be around this time that the caste system began in India.

       About 800 BC, the Aryans learned how to use iron for weapons and tools. Once the Aryans learned how to use iron, they used their new weapons to conquer more of India, and moved to the south and east into the Ganges river valley. The Aryans are also called Vedic people since they composed some important books that describe the life and religion of those days, known as the Vedas.

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       Can you imagine that the tall mountains of the Himalayas were once under the ocean? Yes, this amazing fact is true! Millions of years ago, all the continents were joined together to form a giant continent called Pangaea. Gradually, Pangaea split up into two continents, Laurasia and Gondwanaland.

       These two continents were separated by a sea called the Tethys Sea. India, which was on Gondwanaland, later broke away and became an island. The Indian and the Eurasian plates collided with each other 20 to 30 million years ago, and as a result of this collision, the Himalayas started rising up. Since this area was once covered by the Tethys Sea, fossils of fish and other marine animals have been found on the icy cliffs of the Himalayas.

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       The Chalcolithic Age refers to the period after the New Stone Age. During this time, copper became an important material, along with stone. The Chalcolithic period is also known as the Copper Age. ‘Chalcos’ in Greek means copper.

       Chalcolithic Man relied less on hunting than the Neolithic Man. He focussed more on sheep and goat breeding, and the cultivation of wheat, barley, dates, olives and lentils. Houses during this period were built of sundried mud bricks with roofs made of wood, reeds and mud. Some houses were based on stone foundations, and many were planned around large courtyards.

       The walls of the houses were also used for artistic or ceremonial purposes. In many parts of the country, Chalcolithic cultures existed between 2000 and 1000 BC. Chalcolithic sites have been discovered in Rajasthan, south Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Bengal, central and south India.

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      The Harappans were great traders and had a complex system of trade networks that made them very rich. They traded in shell, dried fish, fish grain, and pearls from the coast, as well as copper, tin, turquoise, ivory, precious and semiprecious stones from the hilly areas.

        Of course, grains, animals and wood were produced and traded from the rural areas. The Harappans had networks that extended into Central Asia, Mesopotamia and the Arabian Peninsula. Through trade, the Harappan Civilization expanded its culture, and came into regular contact with faraway lands.

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       Like any civilizations in the world, the Harappan Civilization too had to face decline. Its glory finally diminished between 2000 and 1800 BC. We cannot really pinpoint one single reason.

       Climate changes may have played a role, since the Earth was becoming warmer during this time. The land became drier, and water for the cities ran short. It is also thought that earthquakes or fires may have destroyed many cities. The city of Mohenjo-Daro shows evidence of having been destroyed by fire. Other scholars feel that the population was wiped out by an epidemic or disease.

       It is also likely that the area became too large to be effectively controlled, encouraging attacks by outsiders. In any case, the nomadic Aryans invaded India around 1500 BC, destroying the Indus Valley Civilization, bringing to an end the most brilliant civilization of the ancient world.

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       Of the many parts of a Harappan city,  the citadel at the centre had a vital role to play. The citadel was the main part of the city, built on a raised platform. It was built of bricks and surrounded by a huge brick wall. The citadel consisted of public buildings, a bath, and granaries and quarters for providing shelter to the persons who taught religion. The remaining parts of the city were spread around the citadel. People went to the citadel for protection when the city was under attack.

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       Do you know how large the largest civilization of the ancient world was? The Indus Valley Civilization covered an area the size of Western Europe! It spread across over 1.3 million square kilometres of land! It was spread out over what is today Pakistan, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, western Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat.

       It has been discovered that the Indus Valley Civilization stretched from Jammu and Kashmir in the north, to the Narmada in the south, and from the Makran coast of Baluchisthan in the west to the River Yamuna in the east.

       Over 1000 sites have been discovered, belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization. Is it any wonder that it was considered the largest of the four ancient civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China?

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Do you like to wear ornaments? It is believed that the people of the Indus Valley Civilization were also fond of dressing up and wearing ornaments. Archaeological discoveries from this period suggest that both men and women wore jewellery. Necklaces, beads and amulets were made from gold, silver and semi-precious stones, including carnelian, turquoise and lapis lazuli.

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       The cities of Harappa were well planned, and even had covered drains like those of modern cities. Large areas were built with bricks of the same size and weight. They used kilns to make bricks and used burnt bricks, in domestic and public buildings.

      A Harappan city was divided into two parts. At the centre was the massive citadel. It had temples and granaries, an assembly hall and baths. Around it was what is known as the lower town. The streets were straight and broad.

They were paved, and laid at right angles to each other. The houses had protection against noise, odours, and thieves. Houses faced streets, and were at least two stories high. They had brick staircases leading to the upper levels and the roof.

       Life was centred around an enclosed courtyard, and there was a balcony over the courtyard. Each house had its own well, and one even had a large bathtub!

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       The Harappans knew how to write, and over 2,000 stone seals have been found in the Indus Valley. These seals were small tablets, which left an impression when pressed into a soft substance like clay. They were quadrangular in shape. These seals are some form of writing, but unfortunately, they have not been deciphered yet.

      Harappan writing consists of short strings of symbols. Some say that each symbol represents a picture or idea; others say it represents a sound. The fact, however, is that no one has actually been able to understand or read the writing of the Harappans.

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       One of the most fascinating, yet mysterious cultures of the ancient world is the Harappan Civilization. This culture existed along the Indus River in present day Pakistan. It was named after the city of Harappa, which was the first city of the Indus Valley Civilization to be discovered.

       Farming was an important part of the Harappa way of life. There was plenty of water for good farming. By 4000 BC, people farmed along the banks of the Indus River and by 3000 BC, irrigation began. People also farmed along tributaries, which are small rivers and streams that flow into a larger river. Earthen bunds were also built to control the river’s annual flooding. The farmers ploughed their fields, probably using wooden ploughs. Using a plough made it much easier to grow more crops. The crops that were grown included wheat, barley, peas, melons, rice and sesame. This civilization was the first to cultivate cotton for the production of cloth. Several animals were also domesticated, including the elephant, which was used for its ivory.

       Did you know that some of the cities of the Indus Valley had between 35,000 and 40,000 people living in them? Some of these cities were as big as some modern cities!

       The most important cities were Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Chanhudaro, Kalibangan, Banawali, Lothal, Dholavira, Sutkagendor and Surkotada. The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization were well planned and solidly built of brick and stone. They had drainage systems, wells and water storage systems, as well as systems for weights and trade. The people made jewellery and toys for their children, and even developed a system of writing, which we unfortunately have not been able to decipher until today.

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       Do you know that large mounds sometimes have ancient cities hidden underneath them? In fact, the Indus Valley Civilization was discovered when an archaeologist, R.D. Bannerjee, visited Mohenjo-daro and saw a large mound. He thought there might be something underneath, and started digging. As the mud was gradually removed, an entire city was revealed!

       How was this city covered with mud? When an ancient city began to decline, people left it, and moved elsewhere.

       After hundreds of years, the abandoned buildings crumbled and broke down. The wind blew mud and sand over them, and when rain fell, the mud stuck to the buildings. In this way, the whole city was covered in mud, and as more and more mud and sand were deposited by the wind, a mound was formed. Harappa and the other cities of the Indus Valley Civilization were discovered when such mounds were excavated, or dug up.

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       The Indus Valley Civilization existed around five thousand years ago on the plains of the Indus River. It flourished in the Bronze Age. From about 2600 B.C. to 1700 BC, a vast number of settlements were built on the banks of the Indus River and the surrounding areas.

       These settlements cover a remarkable region, almost 1.3 million square kilometres of land, which is today part of Afghanistan, Pakistan and northwestern India. The Indus Valley Civilization was a great city civilization. In a city civilization, most of the people live in cities. They were artisans and traders, soldiers and administrators. Of course, there were also people living in villages who cultivated the land and raised cattle. The people in the cities got their grain and food from these villages. We must remember though, that the city civilization of the Indus valley developed from the village life of an earlier period. When the villages became too big, they needed a strong administration. They also began to produce excess grain, so that the people could devote themselves to other activities besides farming. This led to the growth of cities and city civilizations like that of the Indus Valley.

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       In addition to Mehrgarh, other famous Neolithic sites in India are in Kashmir and eastern Rajasthan. There were also settlements in the Indus Delta including Punjab and Haryana, Amri, Kot Diji, Rehman Dheri,  Kalibangan and Banawali.

       Burzahom was the first Neolithic site to be discovered in Kashmir. Burzahom means ‘place of birch’ in Kashmiri. This is because there are many birch trees in the area. There is something unusual about the earliest Neolithic homes at Burzahom. They were below ground level. The people dug pits into the ground with the help of stone tools. They plastered the sides of the pits with mud. Living in these pits was a way in which the early Neolithic people of Burzahom tried to keep snug and warm in the bitterly cold winter. After the discovery and excavation of Burzahom, many other Neolithic sites were discovered in Kashmir at places such as Begagund, Gofkral, Hariparigom, Olchibag, Pampur, Panzgom, Sombur Waztal, and Brah. The types of houses and tools at these sites are similar to those of Burzahom. This shows us that the Neolithic cultures in different parts of our country had their own special features.

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        Do you know when Man started farming for the first time? Mehrgarh finds a unique place in history because it was one of the earliest agricultural communities in the world. It was situated in Baluchistan, now in Pakistan, and is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming. Wheat and barley were grown, and the farmers kept herds of cattle, sheep and goats. The people of Mehrgarh lived in brick houses, and stored their grain in granaries.

       They also learned to line their baskets with clay to make them waterproof. Mehrgarh was occupied from around 7000 BC. Pottery, dating back to around 5000 BC, was discovered there. Beautiful ornaments were also made from conch shells, lapis lazuli and turquoise beads. The first evidence of drilling a tooth on a living person was also discovered in Mehrgarh!

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