Category Great Civilizations

          Montezuma was an emperor of the 16th Century ruling over the Aztec empire from one of the greatest capitals in the world at that time- Tenochtitlan in what is now Mexico.

          “It was like an enchantment… on account of the great towers and temples rising from the water… things never heard of, nor seen, nor even dreamed.” So wrote the Spanish chronicler Bernal Diaz of the city of some 200, 000 people. Montezuma’s capital was on an island in Lake Texococo which had been enlarged by a system of drain-age canals, and was joined to the shore by causeways.

          Across these causeways Hernan Cortes in 1519 led a force of 400 Spaniards, to be greeted by Montezuma as a god. The Spaniards were shown over the shrine-topped pyramids where human sacrifices were made to the Aztecs’ stern war god, Huitzilopochtli.

        “The figure… had a very broad face and monstrous and terrible eyes, and the whole of his body was covered with precious stones, and gold and pearls. There were some braziers and in them were burning the hearts of three Indians they had sacrificed that day. Diaz wrote, describing the scene he witnessed with Cortes. The Aztecs held the Spaniards in awe, but suspicion took over and they realized that Cortes was no god. In this atmosphere, Cortes took Montezuma as a hostage. Hostilities flared, and Montezuma was injured and died.

        In the NocheTriste or Night of Sadness which followed, the Spaniards were all but annihilated by the Aztecs. Cortes and some of his men escaped. A year later they captured Tenochtitlan and razed it to the ground. The Spaniards built a town upon the ruins. It is still the capital of a nation-Mexico City.

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An Aztec was an Indian who lived on the plains of Mexico from the 11th century to the beginning of the 16th. The Aztec civilization was one of the most magnificent in the whole of Central American history, although it was not created by the Aztecs themselves. They simply took over and organized what others had already created. They spoke a language called Nahua, which is still used by over a million Mexicans today, although Spanish is their official tongue.

      In 1324 the Aztecs settled in an Island village called Tenochtitlan, which later grew up into a large town. Mexico City is built on the same spot.

     The Aztecs constructed many beautiful palaces and pyramid shaped temple for the worship of their numerous gods, to whom they offered human sacrifice. They also developed a surprising knowledge of mathematics and astronomy.

     The days of their greatest glory were also their last. In 1519 Hernando Cortez, a Spanish explorer landed in Mexico, marched to Tenochtitlan and took the Aztec king Montezuma prisoner two years later he finally defeated the Aztecs and destroyed their city.

      Fortunately, not everything belonging to the Aztec civilization has disappeared. It is possible to find many example of their culture in Mexico today. Apart from ornaments and trinkets, there are many well preserved architectural remains- sacrificial platforms, temples, and a remarkable calendar stone

The Zapotec religion was polytheistic, that is, they believed in multiple gods and goddesses differentiated only by their costumes.

Gods were depicted wearing clothes with or without capes, while goddesses were depicted wearing skirts. Many of the gods were associated with fertility and agriculture.

Some popular deities were Cocijo, Coquihani, and Pitao etc. They associated life to inanimate objects too.

There are several legends about the origin of the Zapotec. One of them is that they were descended from big cats like pumas, jaguars, and ocelots. They believed themselves to be the original people of the valley of Oaxaca. They assumed themselves to be born from rocks.

The Zapotec believed that they were the descendants of super-natural beings, living among the clouds and believed that they would return to the clouds after their death. It is due to this very belief, the Zapotecs are also known as the cloud people. 

          The Nazcas were fond of not only wool weaving and embroidery, but also of painting plain cotton cloth with an array of colorful images and motifs. Nazca weavers employed an astonishing range of colours and shades to produce intricate and detailed designs.

          The Nazca people made some of the finest pottery and the designs used on them were unique and beautiful. They often depicted harvest scenes on their pottery. Also, animal figures seen in Nazca Line were also used as motifs.

          Looms, spindles, needles, cotton balls, and pots of dyes have all been excavated from Nazca settlements. Nazca metalworkers beat gold into thin sheets which were cut to create silhouettes. Masks were produced which were worn over the mouth and made the wearer appear to have a golden beard and whiskers. Full-face gold masks, hair plumes, and nose and forehead ornaments were also produced.

              The Nazca Civilization is one of the most splendid civilizations that can trace its origin, on the southern coast of Peru by the middle of the first millennium BC. They settled in the Nazca valley. The culture is noted for the geoglyphs made on the desert floor commonly known as Nazca lines. Nazca lines are earth drawings in the forms of animals and plants. They were made by removing the dark surface stones to expose the lighter ground below. Their exact purpose is disputed.

              The Nazca people were also masters of irrigation, and built a network of underground canals.

             Villages were the lifelines of the Nazca civilization. The houses of people were different according to their social class. The Nazca people enjoyed their social life and came together regularly for festivals. 

               The Zapotec was an advanced Mesoamerican civilization that was prominent before the arrival of the Europeans. There are evidences of the civilization at the ancient city of Monte Alban, which was once a popular city in Mesoamerica.

               The Zapotecs dominated much of the territory that today belongs to Oaxaca in Mexico.

               The Zapotec rulers were powerful, and seized control of many provinces outside the valley of Oaxaca, as none of these provinces could compete with them politically and militarily.

               The Zapotecs depended on rivers for their agriculture. They also used canal irrigation to provide water for crops away from the river.

               The Zapotecs developed a calendar and a writing system which is believed to be the first one in Mesoamerica. 

            The end of Wari Civilization is mysterious. The civilization began to deteriorate around 800 AD. Archeologists have determined that the city of Wari was dramatically abandoned by 1000 AD.

            It is believed that severe drought that lasted for centuries, made the Wari civilizations’ end. Even though written records are not available to prove this point, their architecture suggests that they did, indeed face a severe drought.

            The buildings in Wari had doorways that were deliberately blocked up, as if the Wari intended to return, someday when the rains returned. But by the time rain came, the Wari Civilization faded from history. Though they didn’t survive the test of time, the Wari Civilization contributed a great deal to the succeeding civilizations. 

            The Wari is an Andean civilization that flourished in Ancient Peru between AD 450 -1000.

            They left a significant influence on later civilizations like Nazca.

            They were an advanced civilization. The more militaristic Wari were also gifted agriculturalists. They constructed canals to irrigate terraced fields.

            They were good at art as well as architecture. They used distinctive decorative motifs on pottery. The main motif was the Doorway God, which was a figure often represented with a rectangular face and rayed headdress.

            It is believed that the people of Wari were the first to use terrace agriculture, which was later adapted and developed by the Incas. The Wari implemented a combined strategy of military might, economic benefits, and distinct artistic imagery to forge a civilization across ancient Peru. 

          From the floating fields called chinampas to the terrace crops grown, the Aztecs proved themselves to be much advanced as far as agriculture was concerned. The Aztecs mainly used four methods of agriculture.

          Prominent among them was agriculture using chinampas. Chinampas were often set up in lakes with the help of poles. The Aztecs overcame the lack of conventional farming land by chinampas. Each chinampa was framed by a group of up to fifteen people.

          The second form of agriculture was ‘rainfall cultivation’. The Aztecs also implemented terrace agriculture in hilly areas.

          In the valleys irrigation farming was used. Dams diverted water from natural springs to the fields. The Aztecs’ canal system was much effective. It was long enough to provide water to entire Aztec cultivations. 

The Aztecs created some of the most impressive temples and pyramids the world has ever seen. The Great pyramid in Tenochtitlan is the finest example of their architectural skills.

Tenochtitlan was the capital city of the Aztec Empire. It was built on a series of islets in Lake Texcoco. The city was divided into four city sections called campans and was connected with canals which were highly useful in transportation. 

Continue reading “Why is it said that the Aztecs were good at city building and decorative arts?”

               The class system was prevalent among the Aztecs like in many other civilizations. There were different social classes within the Aztec society. Nobility, the highest class was known as pipiltin. They had many privileges like having a house of more than one storey. They were permitted to wear sandals and cotton clothing, while commoners were required to go barefooted. The second class was the peasants, who were known as macehualtin.

               Some men called mayeque, farmed fields belonging to the nobility.

               The slaves among Aztecs were known as tlacotin. Among the Aztecs, people could choose to become slaves when they were very poor.

               Travelling merchants called pochtecah were a small, but important class as they not only facilitated commerce, but also communicated vital information across the empire, and beyond its borders. They sometimes worked as spies for the Aztec Empire. 

               The Aztec Empire was an empire that extended its power throughout Mesoamerica in the late post classic period. It originated in 1427 as a triple-alliance between the city states of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan. They allied to defeat the state of Azcapotzalco which had previously dominated the Basin of Mexico. 

               The Aztec Empire extended its power by a combination of trade and military conquest. They had a large well organized and well equipped army. Like a modern army, it was divided into units under the command of officers.

               The Aztec Empire controlled its vassal states by installing friendly rulers. They also contracted marriage alliances with ruling families. Their territory reached as far as Pacific Ocean. At the time of the Spanish conquest in 1519, the Aztecs were at the zenith of their power. 

          The Aztecs were a group native to Central Mexico and the northwestern part of Guatemala.

          They lived in a city called Tenochtitlan, which was surrounded by two of Mexico’s highest mountains. They got their water from mountain springs. Food was either grown or hunted. The Aztecs spoke the Nahuatl language.

          The Aztecs were credited with the discovery of cocoa bean, and they made chocolate using cocoa bean. They believed that cocoa seed were a gift of the god of wisdom. They even used cocoa beans as currency – it’s strange, but true.  

          The Aztecs used chocolate to make a beverage which they introduced to the Spanish. The Spanish enjoyed it too, and thus made its way to Europe.

          Later, the Aztec food and beverages became very popular in Europe. 

            The sacred city of Machu Picchu is considered as one of the most spectacular ancient cities. More interesting is the fact that it was built on the most difficult, wild, and inaccessible mountain area. The city that was built around 1450 is a magnificent sight, and it served as a royal estate for Inca emperors and nobles.

            Its construction is dated to the period of two great Inca rulers, Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui and Tupac Inca Yupanqui. The city nestles in between two mountains called Machu Picchu and Huayna Picchu.

            The city Machu Picchu is made up of more than 150 buildings ranging from baths and houses to temples and sanctuaries.

            A stone aqueduct brought a supply of fresh water from the mountain streams to the houses. Machu Picchu is the greatest example of the Inca brilliance in the field of architecture.

            The ancient city is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 

          Today’s world allows us to communicate with anyone regardless of social class, or even social status. But this was not the case with the Inca Civilization. If you had to communicate, you had to be within the same social class, or else you would be punished. Strange, isn’t it?

          The Incas had four main social classes. The Sapa Inca, the emperor or the king, was the top of the Inca social class. Sapa Inca’s wife was called the Coya; she served as the queen of the society.

          Below the royals were the nobility, who were the relatives of the royals. But there was another way to be in the nobility class and that was by achieving distinction through education or other training fields.

          The majority of Inca society was composed of Ayllu. Ayllu members were expected to take care of the cattle’s and had many other important tasks. They were often responsible for the preservation and care of honoured mummies of the ancestors. In exchange for their work, they were paid. 

          The Incas had an incredible system of roads. Since they lived in the Andes Mountains, it took great engineering and architectural skill to build the roads. Their cities were advanced. They had very efficient drainage and water supply system. A series of finely carved stone channels and basins carried water down through the mountain cities. The stone masons of the Inca Empire were very skilled, and they built marvellous shrines using stones.

          The government of the Inca Empire was organized like a pyramid, with the emperor Sapa Inca at the top. The emperor was believed to be descended from the sun and was treated as a god.

          The chief priest or Willaq Umu was the second to the emperor. The Incas had a council that comprised of 16 nobles. This council helped the emperor in administration. The Incas kept records of their administration by using knotted strings called quipu. 

               It may sound strange that the Incas had a festival called the ‘Festival of Dead’, where the dead emperors were paraded through the streets. The Incas strongly believed in the afterlife.

               According to the Inca belief, death was a passage to the next world that was full of difficulties. They called the spirit of the dead ‘camaquen’ and believed that a camaquen need the help of a black dog that can see even in darkness, so that they could pass the long road ahead of them. 

               They embalmed, or mummified their dead before burial. After the burial, relatives would bring food to the tomb of their beloved.

               The Incas did not practice creamation. They believed that, burning would cause their vital force to disappear, and also block their passage to the next world. The Incas also believed that the dead could hear them. 

          The Incas were prominent among the Andean civilizations. The Inca Civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century. They built a powerful empire by defeating their neighbours and were the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, and possibly the largest empire in the world in the early 16th century.

          Under their great ruler, Pachacuti, they even extended their territory to the north, south and west. The Inca called their empire Tahuantinsuyu, meaning ‘land of four quarters’.

          The Incas were unique in many aspects. They never used wheeled vehicles. Instead, they carried goods on llamas. They did not use metals such as iron and steel. Above all, they lacked a system of writing.

          Today, it is remembered as one of the great civilizations that ever existed. 

             The Maya lived in city states, each with its own ruler. The cities were well organized. The largest Maya city was Tikal, in today’s Guatemala. It was settled in around 900 BC. But it rose to become an important city state only around AD 200. Tikal was in constant dispute with its neighbouring state Calakmul. The city had about 3,000 buildings. It extended over an area of 64 square kilometres, with a population of about 50,000.

            Palenque was another great city of the Maya. It became important from about AD 550. King Pakal the great, who ruled from AD 600 to 683, made this city great. But, after AD 780, the city’s power and glory declined.

            Another great city of the Maya Civilization was Chichen-Itza. It was founded in around AD 435. By AD 987, the city flourished, and become a major trading centre. The city Chichen-Itza is famous for its architectural wonders like the step pyramid of Kukulcan, the Temple of the Warriors, and the largest Maya ball game court.

          The Spanish conquest stripped away most of the defining features of Maya Civilization.

          However, many Maya villages remained remote from Spanish colonial authority, and for the most part, continued to manage their own affairs.

          The basic Mesoamerican diet of maize and beans continued, although agricultural output was improved by the introduction of steel tools. Traditional crafts such as weaving and ceramics continued to be practiced. Community markets and trade in local products continued long after the conquest.

          At times, the colonial administration encouraged the traditional economy in order to extract tribute in the form of ceramics or cotton textiles, which were popular among the Spanish.

          Besides that, the Maya language and beliefs proved resistant to change.

            The Maya city states were continuously at war with each other. By around AD 1240, most of the Maya territories disintegrated into small communities, battling against each other. All their wealth was destroyed by these frequent wars. This made their conquest by the Spanish easy.

            In 1511, a Spanish ship sunk in the Caribbean, and about a dozen survivors entered the coast of Yucatan peninsula, in south-eastern Mexico. They were seized by a Maya lord, and most were sacrificed, although two managed to escape.

           From 1517 to 1519, three separate Spanish expeditions explored the Yucatan coast, and engaged in a number of battles with the Maya inhabitants.

            In 1523, Pedro de Alvarado came with a huge army. Earlier, they formed a good alliance with the Maya but it did not last long because Spanish demanded the gold as tribute.

            Francisco de Montejo and his son, launched a long series of campaigns against the kingdoms of the Yucatan Peninsula in 1527, and finally completed the conquest of the northern portion of the peninsula in 1546. This left only the Maya kingdoms of the Peten Basin independent. In 1697, Martin de Ursua launched an assault on the Itza capital Nojpeten, and the last independent Maya city fell to the Spanish.

          The Maya made magnificent sculptures and paintings. Though the Maya art is unique, it has the influence of Olmec culture.

          The Maya are most famous for their great sculptures, made out of stone. They built tall pyramids and big palaces.

          The Maya were highly skilled in making excellent steles. A stele is an upright stone slab bearing a commemorative inscription. Huge steles weighing around 50 tonnes were excavated from Maya sites. Besides stones, the sculptors used wood and jade. They created excellent wood carvings. Maya ornaments made of jade were exported to other cultures too.

          The Maya also excelled in mural paintings. They painted murals on the walls of temples, palaces and houses. They produced fine pottery. They decorated their pottery with paintings and carvings. The Maya had a variety of dance and music.

           Historians believe that the Maya city of Palenque was the centre of their art and craft. 

          As we know, trade is vital for the success of any civilization. Trade was a key component of Maya society too, and also in the development of the Maya Civilization. They had an advanced trading system consisting of short, medium, and long trade routes.

          Trade routes went as far south as Guatemala and Belize, and also extended to the Caribbean Islands. Trade routes not only supplied physical goods, but they facilitated the movement of people and ideas throughout Mesoamerica. Shifts in trade routes occurred with the rise and fall of important cities in the Maya region.

          Even though, the Maya city states were continuously at war with each other, they traded with one another. Wars were fought for the control of trade too.

          The commodities were generally classified into two categories- luxury and utilitarian goods. Luxury items included things like gold, copper, highly decorated pottery while the utilitarian items were clothing, tools, salts etc. Long distance trades of both items were controlled directly by the rulers.

          The Maya Civilization of Central America was without doubt, one of the most dominant ancient civilizations of Mesoamerica. The Maya civilization was the longest lived, and the most widely spread of all the great cultures of Ancient America.

          The Maya lived in Mexico before 2000 BC. But, they became powerful from AD 200 to 900. They remained powerful until they were conquered by the Spanish in around AD 1500. The Maya created wonderful cities. Some Maya cities were huge, holding up to 50,000 people. The houses were built by mud bricks. The great Maya cities were Palenque, Tikal, Copan, and Chichen Itza. At the centre of each city there was a pyramid shaped temple.

           The great Maya civilization survived for hundreds of years. The Maya invented their own system of writing. They were good in mathematics and astronomy. Their solar calendar, with 365 days in a year is a wonder to the modern world. 

               The Olmecs were good traders too. They had set up trade routes with other Mesoamerican cultures. From around 1200 BC, the Olmec city of San Lorenzo arose as a major trading centre. The city developed long distance trade networks with other regions.

               The Olmecs mainly traded pottery, ornaments, statues and figurines for basalt, serpentine, salt, feathers and seashells. By 900 BC, the city of La Venta replaced San Lorenzo, as the biggest trading centre.

               A major trading partner of the Olmec was their neighbour the Mokaya. The Tlatilcos of central Mexico was another culture that had trade relations with the Olmecs. There was a great expansion in the inter regional trade routes in the Olmec period. Exotic green stones and seashells were traded between distant places.

               The archeologists believe that La Venta exported more goods than it imported, since it was a centre of skilled craftsmen.

          Artistically, the Olmecs were far ahead of their contemporary civilizations.

          The most identified symbol of the Olmec Civilization is the colossal head. Archeologists have found huge stone heads at almost all Olmec sites. Most of them were carved in basalt. The heads could be nearly three metres high, and five tonnes in weight. They were probably portrais of Olmec rulers. There were twenty heads found from the southern Mexican cities, each showing unique facial expressions.

          Monumental stone art and cave paintings make up a significant portion of Olmec artistic tradition. They were also gifted woodworkers, though only a few survived.

          Jade and ceramic were the popular materials for sculpture. One of the gods most commonly rendered in small sculpture was the Rain Baby, who is a toothless baby with an open-mouth.

          As Olmec artists were so advanced, their works had a profound impact on later Mexican cultures. 

          The Great Wall of China is a man-made marvel. The Great Wall took centuries to build. The history of the Great Wall begins during the period of Qin dynasty.

          The Great Wall was built across the northern border to keep out the hostile Huns, and other invaders. The emperor Qin Shih Huang Di, ordered his builders to join up many existing walls along the Chinese northern frontier. The wall extends through mountain ridges, rivers, and plains of China like a giant dragon.

          Built of fired bricks and mortar, the wall is about 6700 kilometres long. It is equipped with shooting platforms and weapon stores. It is between five and eight metres in width, wide enough for the troops and carts to move along it.

          Another project of Qin Shih Huang Di was the terracotta army, which was intended to protect the emperor after his death. 

          The Qin dynasty was one of the greatest empires in Chinese history. In around 300 BC, seven different states in China fought each other. The Qin state emerged as the most powerful of the warring states. King Zhen of the Qin state defeated the other six states. King Zhen took the name of Qin Shih Huang Di, and became the first emperor of China.

          As a part of its centralization, the Qin connected the northern border walls of the states it defeated, making the first Great Wall of China. 

                 During its rule, the dynasty built a powerful army, and increased trade across China. The contributions of the Qin dynasty also include the unification of the legal code. They laid down standards for writing, money, weights and measures. Civil servants were appointed by the Emperor to handle daily governance. The changes made by Qin dynasty helped the later dynasties like Han, to rule effectively. 

                The period of the ‘Hundred Schools of Thought’ was of great intellectual expansion in China. Regional rulers rose during the period between 476 and 221 BC. They waged bitter wars. So, this period is known as the period of warring states. Thinkers and teachers offered their services to the new rulers. Hence, this period is also called the ‘Period of the Hundred Schools of Thought’. Taoism arose at this time. Great philosopher Lao- tze was the founder of Taoism. 

Continue reading “What was the role played by the ‘Hundred Schools of Thought’ in Chinese society?”

If we look at Chinese history, we will find that it was mostly ruled by powerful families called dynasties.

The earliest one was Shang dynasty. They began to rule in around 1600 BC. The Shang dynasty ruled for more than 500 years, until they were conquered by the Zhou, in 11th century BC. The Zhou dynasty ruled for around 800 years. From 1027 to 256 BC, the kingdom was divided into many states and the local lords looked after their areas. However, the local lords began to fight each other. Thus, the Zhou dynasty ended, and the period called the Warring States period, began.

Shang dynasty led to numerous cultural advances, and was famous for silk weaving and agriculture. The basics of the Chinese Language were also developed during this period.

The Zhou dynasty was the longest ruling dynasty in Chinese history. This was a period of economic growth, with Chinese silk and porcelain being traded abroad.

               A civilization that grew up thousands of years ago quite separately from the rest of the world – this is probably an ideal description of the great Chinese Civilization.

               There are three great river valleys in China. They are the Hwang- Ho or Yellow River, the Yangtze, and the Hsi. Ancient Chinese Civilization emerged more than 3000 years ago in the Yellow River valley. From there it extended southwards gradually. It had reached the Yangtze valley by the 6th century BC. Hence, the Hwang- Ho or Yellow River is also known as the mother river of China.

               The valley of the Yellow River was very fertile. For thousands of years, the Chinese grew millet, rice and wheat there. They also domesticated cattle, dogs, and sheep.

               The Shang, the earliest dynasty of China, built their major cities like Erlitou, Zhengzhou and Anyang in the Yellow River valley. Anyang was their capital city. Luoyang, the capital city of the Zhou dynasty, who took over the power from the Shang, also was in the plains of Yellow River.

               The Yellow River helped farmers with water to irrigate their crops. And, it became the centre of social life. In short, Chinese civilization was a gift of the Yellow River. 

              Unlike many other civilizations, Egypt gave prominence to women. Women of all classes in Ancient Egypt had many rights, compared to women later in history. Many of them were skilled in professions like mid-wifery, some of them were priestesses, and some even held important positions in court.

              Ancient Egypt also gave birth to some very famous queens. One such queen was Hatshepsut. She was the first great woman in recorded history. She remained in power for twenty years and expanded trade relations, built magnificent temples, and restored many temples as well. 

                 Another famous queen was Nefertiti. She was the wife of the New Kingdom Pharaoh Akhenaten. She ruled with her husband.

               The last ruler of independent Ancient Egypt, Queen Cleopatra VII, too was very famous. After her death in 30 BC, Egypt became part of the huge Roman Empire. 

            Egypt is known for its magnificent monuments and its history, but have you ever thought about the kings who were behind these extraordinary constructions?

            Ramses II was one among them. He was the third pharaoh of the nineteenth dynasty of Egypt. He is often regarded as the greatest and most powerful pharaoh of the Egyptian Empire who ruled over the kingdom for nearly 66 years, taking the civilization to new heights.

            His successors called him the ‘Great Ancestor’. Ramses II led several military expeditions into the Levant. By entering into peace treaties with these empires, Ramses helped to solidify Egypt’s borders on all sides, allowing for increased internal stability.

            The early part of his reign was focused on building cities, temples, and monuments. He established the city of Pi-Ramesses in the Nile Delta as his new capital and used it as the main base for his campaigns in Syria. 

        It was during the New Kingdom that the Egyptian Empire conquered the most lands. They sent ambassadors all over western Asia. The kings built huge temples and erected colossal statues of them. The period of the New Kingdom extended from 1570-1070 BC. For about 500 years, New Kingdom of Egypt was the world’s most magnificent civilization.

          The most famous Egyptian pharaohs came from the New Kingdom. They included Ramses II, and Seti I who were renowned military leaders, Akhenaten, who briefly abolished all the gods except the sun god, and Hatshepsut, a powerful queen who ruled with all the might of her male relatives. 

Continue reading “Why is it said that Egypt had many great kings, especially in the New Kingdom?”

          There are many wonders from the ancient world that have fascinated us, and the pyramid from Egyptian civilization is one among them.

          The pyramids are truly one of the world’s greatest architectural wonders. Egyptian pyramids are royal tombs. The Egyptians believed that pharaohs, their kings were gods, and so immortal. Therefore, they built the pyramids to safeguard their bodies.

          The Pyramids of Giza, located on the Giza plateau are the most magnificent structures in history. One among them was built for King Khu-fu, and is known as the Great Pyramid. It is thought to be constructed of over two million stone blocks that weigh from two to over fifty tonnes.

          The Great Pyramid of Giza is considered as the most colossal building ever erected by the Ancient Egyptians.

          Undoubtedly, this was the best example of Ancient Egyptians’ mastery in architecture.

          There were over 2000 gods and goddesses in Ancient Egypt. Some had the body of a human and the head of an animal.

          Ra was the Sun god and was one of the most important           ancient deities. The lord of all gods, he was portrayed as a falcon-headed man, with a white and red crown wearing a solar disc on his head with a sacred cobra. Later, Amun, the king of gods was merged with the sun god Ra into Amun-Ra.

          Bastet was the daughter of Sun god Ra, and was depicted either as a cat or woman with the head of a cat. She was the goddess of protection and household entertainments. Thoth was the god of wisdom, writing and knowledge and was portrayed as an ibis headed man. Horus the god of light and sky was depicted as a falcon headed male creature.

          The god of Earth was Geb. Tefnut was the goddess of rain. Sekhmet, the goddess of War was lion-headed. 

          The great land along the banks of the Nile has been mentioned extensively in history. The Ancient Egyptians originally threw their dead bodies into pits of sand. Later, they decided to put their dead in coffins, but the bodies quickly decayed. But soon they developed a method of preserving bodies called mummification.

          In mummification, all the internal organs of the dead are removed, and the body is then covered with a mixture of salt called natron. The body is then wrapped in linen, with protective amulets inserted between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin. All burials, regardless of social status, included goods for the deceased. Wealthy Egyptians were buried with larger quantities of luxury items.

          With the beginning of the New Kingdom, books of the dead were included in the grave, along with statues that were believed to perform manual labour for the dead in the afterlife. Rituals in which the deceased were magically re-animated accompanied burials. After burial, living relatives were expected to occasionally bring food to the tomb and recite prayers. 

            The earliest inhabitants of Egypt lived in huts made from papyrus reeds. However, it was soon discovered that the mud left behind after the annual flooding of the Nile could be made into bricks which could be used for building. Bricks were made by mixing mud and straw and leaving them to dry.

            As their civilization developed, the Ancient Egyptians began to build houses with two floors. The top floor was where people lived, and the lower floor was used to store crops. These people created reed canopies to protect their houses from the hot Egyptian sun. The houses of the wealthy had a courtyard in the centre. Floors were covered with reed mats. Household furniture consisted of wooden stools, beds raised from the floor and individual tables.

            The Ancient Egyptians placed a great value on hygiene and personal appearance. Most bathed in the Nile and used a pasty soap made from animal fat and chalk. Clothing was made from simple linen sheets that were bleached white, and both men and women of the upper classes wore wigs, jewellery, and cosmetics.

          Trade always brought revenue, and this in turn, developed the economic life of those involved in trade. In Ancient Egypt also trade blossomed, and this was the economic basis of Egyptian civilization. They traded with people from foreign countries like Nubia and Afghanistan.

          They obtained incense and gold from their trade with Nubians. The Ancient Egyptians imported lapis lazuli, the blue stone which originated from Afghanistan. The goods imported by the Ancient Egyptians were mostly raw materials and products sought as luxury items in high society. Egypt’s Mediterranean trade partners also included Greece and Crete, which provided supplies of olive oil. Egypt mainly exported grain, gold, and papyrus, in addition to other finished goods including glass and stone objects.

          Do you know that the seeds of the Ancient Egyptian civilization were first sown along the banks of the great Nile River? It was a true gift for the Egyptians, as it attracted them towards its banks by providing an ideal condition for the development of stable communities. The annual flooding of the river left the banks fertile, thereby encouraging agriculture.

          Farming was an important factor that facilitated the Ancient Egypt’s economic development. They depended on agricultural activities not only for livelihood but also for commercial purposes. Even though the land of Egypt consisted of dry desert, and received very little rain, they managed to flourish by utilizing the water of the Nile.

          The Egyptians ploughed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals. They cultivated all kinds of crops like barely, but three crops stood out. One was wheat which was ground into flour, flax that was spun into linen and papyrus that was dried and used as a paper substitute. 

            Egyptian civilization is one of the six historic civilizations to arise independently. Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt. It is believed to have begun around 3100 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh, Narmer.

            The success of the Ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture. The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops.

            The fertile floodplain of the Nile gave Egyptians the opportunity to develop a settled agricultural economy and a more sophisticated, centralized society that became a cornerstone in the history of human civilization. 

          What really happened to one of the world’s oldest and most advanced civilization is not yet known. The reason behind the decline of Indus valley civilization is based upon the speculations of historians.

          It is believed that the invasion of an Indo-European tribe from central Asia, the Aryans caused the decline of the Indus valley civilization, as they were the next settlers there. Some others opined that an increase in inter-personal violence and infectious diseases like leprosy and tuberculosis led to their decline.

          And some speaks of a great drought in the area, which led to the decline of trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia, and caused the collapse of the Indus valley Civilization. 

          Mohenjodaro was an ancient city which had a lot in common with our modern society. This mysterious city built around 2500 BC, was prosperous, and used advanced technology and constructed buildings that were unique to the ancient world.

          It was one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus Valley civilization, and one of the world’s earliest major urban settlements. The city was divided into two parts, the Citadel and the lower city. Most of the lower city remained uncovered, but the citadel had a public bath, large residential structure and so on.

          The urban planning and architecture of the city has mesmerized archaeologists. It had a meticulous road plan with rectilinear buildings, channelled sanitization, a huge well that served as a public pool to bathe, the great granary and many more amazing designs on building.

          With the decline of Indus Valley civilization around 1700 BC, Mohenjodaro was abandoned. The great city vanished without trace from history until rediscovered in the 1920s. Now, Mohenjodaro is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 

          Scholars have made innumerable efforts to solve the puzzle called ancient writing. But the writing system of the Indus Valley civilization, even today remains a mystery.

         Attempts to decipher it failed, and this was the reason why it is known as the earliest civilization of antiquity. Writings were found in pottery, amulets, carved stamp seals, on weights and copper tablets. Over 2000 stone seals have been found in the Indus valley, which were quadrangular in shape.

        The Harappan writing consists of short strings of symbols. Some say that each symbol represents a picture or Idea; others say it represents a sound.

        Some experts believe that these writings were slightly earlier than the writings of the Sumerians. These marking have similarities to what later became the Indus Script. Clay and stone tablets unearthed at Harappa, which were carbon dated 3300-3200 BC, contain trident-shaped and plant-like markings.

          The prosperity of Indus Valley civilization depended, to a large extent, on its trade and transport. Raw materials were brought by land and water routes from within and outside the valley. They used bullock carts as well as boats for trading purpose.

          Boats were probably small, flat-bottomed crafts, perhaps driven by sails.

          From the distribution of Indus Valley civilization’s remains, we can assume that they had trade relations with the coastal regions of Persia, and Mesopotamia. Evidences show that trade contacts extended even to Crete and possibly to Egypt.

          There was an extensive maritime trade network operating between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations. Such long-distance sea trade became feasible with the development of plank-built watercraft, equipped with a single central mast supporting a sail of woven rushes or cloth. 

         We may think of dentistry to be a modern practice, but it is not so. The people of the Indus Valley civilization already had knowledge of dentistry! Archaeological evidence from Indus Valley sites shows the first evidence of drilling human teeth, in a living person.

          What is more important about these people is that, they were the first to measure length, mass, and time accurately.

          People were familiar with new techniques in metallurgy and produced brass, copper, bronze and ivory which were used to make ornaments, utensils, seals etc. The people of the Indus Valley civilization developed techniques and tools to measure length, weight and time with impressive accuracy. They used the same for commercial as well as building purpose.

          Engineering skills were at its heights, and this is clear from the construction of docks at Lothal. They evolved some new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, led and tin. 

            A ‘planned city’ is a title which even today, in modern times, many of our cities fail to achieve. But you will be surprised to know that this was achieved by the Harappan cities of the Indus Valley civilization centuries ago.

            The cities of Harappa were well planned. Large areas were built with the bricks of the same size and weight. They used kilns to make bricks, and used burnt bricks in domestic and public buildings.

            The main feature of Harappan town planning was the granaries or store houses used to store grains. The great bath was the earliest public water tank, and the lower town was the place where common people lived. Harappan streets were straight and the cities were well known for the drains built on either side of the road. The houses were varied in size some had more than one storey. Houses were built on massive platforms to save them from seasonal floods.

            The excavations conducted here have revealed the advanced town planning that characterized the Harappan cities, built more than 4000 years ago. 

          Around 2500 BC, the people of the Indus Valley built huge cities including Mohenjodaro in the south and Harappa in the north.

          These cities were well planned. The buildings were constructed with mud-bricks. A proper drainage system and water storage system were some of the main features of these cities.

          Each city was divided into two areas. One area was where the people lived. Houses were arranged in rows along straight streets. Most houses had a well for water, in the courtyard and hygienic toilets.

          The city’s other half was a walled area containing huge public buildings like granaries, public halls, great bath etc. Near the granaries were threshing floors, where farmers from villages threshed their grains. The other important Indus Valley cities were Lothal, Dholavira, Sutkagendor, Surkotada and Banawali. 

          Do you know when the first urban settlement appeared in the history? It was during the Indus Valley civilization. The civilization at Mohenjodaro and Harappa grew up in the valley of the river Indus and this is why it is referred as the Indus valley civilization.

          It is considered to be one of the largest of the ancient civilizations of an urban nature. The town planning in the Indus valley civilization was very systematic. The city was the heart of Indus valley civilization.

          The Indus Valley Civilization began around 2500 BC, and ended up by 1900 BC. It mainly included the northwestern regions of South Asia, extending from what today is north-east Afghanistan to Pakistan, and northwest India. At its peak, the Indus Valley Civilization may have had a population of over five million. 

          Nebuchadnezzar II was a ruler of Babylonia. He expanded his empire while building the city of Babylon into a wonder of the ancient world.

           The city of Babylon was a wonder to the ancient world. One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World ‘The Hanging Garden’, survived here. This garden was built by king

          Nebuchadnezzar, who ruled Babylonia. Nebuchadnezzar was the mighty king of the Babylonian empire between 605 and 562 BC. The hanging garden was believed to have been built for Nebuchadnezzar’s wife, as she missed the green hills and villages of her homeland. The garden was remarkable with its ascending series of tiered gardens that contained a wide variety of trees, shrubs, and vines.

           Nebuchadnezzar’s building projects also included surrounding his capital city with a 16 kilometres long double wall, with an elaborate entry called the Ishtar Gate. He also built a port on the Persian Gulf. Nebuchadnezzar also built a grand palace that came to be known as “the Marvel of the Mankind”.

          Hammurabi, the sixth king of the first dynasty of Babylonia, instituted one of the earliest known collections of laws.

          There were different sets of law in Ancient Babylon concerning religion, agriculture, administration and business. Hammurabi codified all these laws in simple form which became famous as the Code of Hammurabi.

          The Code of Hammurabi had four parts. They include laws about money, property, the family, and the rights of slaves. According to the law, a criminal had to be punished in a way that suited the crime. The famous phrase “an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth” originates from Hammurabi’s code. For instance, a murderer was awarded the death penalty. If a thief was caught stealing he had to return triple price of the same.

          Hammurabi’s laws were carved into a stele of black basalt rock. The code begins and ends with addresses to the gods. He stated specifically that the strong should not oppress the weak, and that widows or orphans should get justice.

          The Code of Hammurabi is important even today, for it reveals the way human rights were beginning to emerge in Babylonia, as Hammurabi sought to protect all classes of Babylonian society. 

               Hammurabi was the greatest king of the First Babylonian Dynasty, reigning from 1792 BC to 1750 BC. He extended Babylon’s control throughout Mesopotamia through military campaigns. From all the remarkable achievements of Hammurabi, none is more important than the Code of Law.

               Though many cultures co-existed in Mesopotamia, Babylonian culture gained a degree of prominence among the literate classes throughout the Middle East under Hammurabi.

                Hammurabi used his power to undertake a series of public works, including heightening the city walls for defensive purposes, and expanding the temples.

               Vast numbers of contract tablets, dated to the reigns of Hammurabi and his successors, have been discovered, as well as 55 of his own letters. Hammurabi died in around 1750 BC. His son Samsu-iluna succeeded him.

          Early Man believed that heaven held some kind of power over earthly existence. Man gazed towards the heaven, searching to put some meaning and order to the universe around him. This belief was found in the ancient Babylonian records.

          Babylonians are famous for their contribution to mathematics and astronomy. They created a numerical system based on the number 60, which helped us to derive the 360 degree system.

          The Greek day of 12 double hours, the zodiac and its signs, and the calendar, are all credited to Babylonians.

          Not only this, the Babylonians had a significant knowledge of medicine as well. They knew the anatomy of human and animals and even performed surgeries in delicate areas like the eyes. The world of mathematics and astronomy owes much to the Babylonians. 

            As we know Mesopotamia was blessed with many empires, which contributed to the socio-political changes in the region.

            Sumer and Akkad, which developed very rich cultures, were later adopted by Amorite, a tribe that had conquered all of Mesopotamia in 21st century BC.

            Soon under the rule of the Amorites, Babylon became the political and commercial centre of the Tigris-Euphrates area. They created a vast empire. Babylonia was called Mat Akkadi ‘the country of Akkad’ in the Akkadian language.

            Efficient kings made the empire even more flourishing. It was during the reign of Hammurabi that Babylon expanded greatly, and became the major power in the region. Hammurabi forged coalitions between the separate city states, promoted science and scholarship, and created his famous code of law. 

            Tiglath-Pileser III was an Assyrian King in the eighth century BC. His real name was Pulu, and he was the governor of the city of Kalhu. Through a coup he became the king. He assumed the name Tiglath-Pileser to link him to the great rulers of the past like Tiglath-Pileser I. As king, he made drastic changes to the government, reducing the power of governors. He restructured the military, and it became Assyria’s first professional army. He was a proficient administrator, and is regarded as one of the greatest leaders in history.

            He is one of the most successful military commanders in world, conquering most of the world known to the Assyrians at that time. He defeated several kingdoms including Urartu, and Media. Babylonia came under his control in 729 BC, and he crowned himself as ‘King Pulu of Babylon’. 

          In ancient civilization, as in modern civilizations, war have always been won by a strong military force and lost by the weak one. A strong military force is always important to secure a nation from external invasion. History has been witness to this phenomenon.

          Assyrian military power, considered the first real military power in history, has been highly acclaimed. The Assyrians acquired a large empire and possessed a highly advanced military organization and weaponry.

          In a warrior society where fighting was a part of life, two things that made Assyrians great were their deadly chariots, and their fearsome iron weapons.

          Assyrian rulers were strong. They went on military expeditions along the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. This practice was continued for hundreds of years.

         Assyrian kings built highways, and established courts to settle disputes among subjects. They even promoted arts and education and had libraries in their palaces. But they were most famous for their fearsome army.

         But, as Assyria grew in size, the army failed to defend the whole empire at once. The combined forces of Babylonia and Media defeated them, and the great Assyrian Empire crumbled soon. 

          The first civilization is thought to have arisen in Mesopotamia. But sadly, it was also the first civilization to be conquered. The conquerors were the Akkadians, and the conqueror was Sargon. He ruled the Akkadian Empire between 2340 BC and 2284 BC.

          Sargon is remembered, for he created the world’s first empire and standing army. He made Akkadian the official language. Sargon promoted trade, improved water management, and standardized weights and measures.

         He was a self-made man of humble origins. The baby Sargon was found floating in a reed basket on the river Euphrates, and was later rescued by a gardener Akki. Akki adopted the boy, and raised him as his own son.

          Sargon introduced the idea that a king should be succeeded by his son. The kings, who ruled Mesopotamia later, saw themselves as the heirs of Sargon’s Empire. 

        Much of what we know about the history of Mesopotamia comes from the thousand tablets found in Assyrian cities.

        Assyria was initially a Sumerian-dominated region. Later, they became subject to the dynasty of the city state of Akkad during the Akkadian Empire.

        Assyrian rulers were subject to Sargon and his successors, and the city of Assur became a regional administrative centre of the Empire.

       Assyria was already firmly involved in trade in Asia Minor by this time; the earliest known reference to their trade post in Hatti was found on later cuneiform tablets describing the early period of the Akkadian Empire.

       After the decline of the Akkadian Empire, the rulers of Assyria once again became fully independent.

       Ushpia appears to have been the first fully urbanized independent king of Assyria. The oldest remains of the city Assur were discovered in the foundation of the Ishtar Gate. 

          History tells us many stories – some based on fantasy, and some based on truth. Ancient Mesopotamia too had its own share of stories. One of which considered as the earliest surviving great work of literature is the Epic of Gilgamesh. It is an epic poem from Mesopotamia. It was written on 12 clay tablets in the cuneiform writing style. It is about the adventures of the historical king of Uruk, Gilgamesh, who seemed to have lived in Mesopotamia about 2700 BC. The epic begins with Gilgamesh ruling the city of Uruk. Gilgamesh learns about a wild man who lives out in the hills near the city. The wild man was Enkidu. Gilgamesh gets Enkidu to come to the city, and the two become friends. They have many adventures together. When Enkidu dies, Gilgamesh mourns his friend’s death.

          He starts seeking the secret of eternal life and later learns that he can become immortal if he stays awake for a week, watching a plant. But he fails and falls asleep. Realizing the fact that everybody has to die some day, he returns to Uruk as a much wiser man than before. 

          Uruk, Ur, and Lagash were the major cities in Ancient Mesopotamia. Among them, Uruk was the most important one. It was founded by King Enmerkar sometime around 4500 BC. It was probably the largest city in the world at that time. The city was famous for its large monuments including temples and palaces. Uruk is famous for its great king Gilgamesh. It was the centre of trade and administration.

          Ur was another important Sumerian city state around 3800 BC. Ur possessed great wealth and the people there enjoyed life more than the other Mesopotamian cities. The city of Ur reached the heights of its glory under King Ur-Nammu in around 2100 BC. The city was abandoned after 500 BC.

         Another Sumerian city, Lagash was founded in 5200 BC. It was a culturally vibrant city till 3500 BC. Lagash was endowed with many temples. The most famous monument in Lagash was the Stele of the Vultures, which was erected to celebrate the victory of King Eannatum over the neighbouring state of Umma. The city was once the seat of Sumerian art. 

       The Sumerians were the first people to form a civilization, and they were considered as one of the advanced civilizations. Their culture influenced future civilizations. Social classes were formed, as people started doing different jobs, which in turn allowed them to live in different ways.

          In Sumer, the city became the centre of trade, religion, and social life. The city layout described the social classes developing.

           The Sumerian city was centre around a massive temple complex called a Ziggurat, where the god of the city was worshipped. The Sumerians believed that gods controlled nature and life. They offered food and wine to keep the gods happy.

           Palaces of the King’s family surrounded the temple, which was again, surrounded by houses and shops for government workers, and craftsmen. Smaller houses were found outside the city, but these still lay within the large defensive walls that surrounded the city. Narrow alleys and small streets divided the houses. 

The Greek word ‘Mesopotamia’ means ‘the land between two rivers’. The fertile land between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris was suitable for agriculture, which made it possible for Man to stay in the same place for a longer period.

The first urban civilization to have ever emerged on the planet Earth is the Sumerian civilization, of Mesopotamia in 3500 BC. Hence, Mesopotamia is called one of the cradles of civilization.

Agriculture first drew people to the banks of the rivers in Mesopotamia. Soon, they learned to build irrigation canals. As more people began to settle here, they began to build many more villages and towns along the river.

The most important contribution of the Sumerians to mankind was writing. As time went on it became necessary to keep records. This led to the development of writing. The Sumerians used clay tablets to record their accounts.

The Sumerians had well developed systems for counting. They also had a calendar, and a legal system. The Sumerians are often credited with the invention of wheel. They used wheels for carts, and also for making pots. There was a well developed system for the governance of cities.

Today, the region of Mesopotamia is located mainly in Iraq and in parts of Iran, Syria and Turkey. 

          In the course of human evolution, at a certain point in time, the idea of living in a group with mutual under-standing and sharing became very useful and practical.

          From small isolated groups, communities were formed, and then societies, which in due course, became a civilization. But a civilization is much more than just a town; it is an advanced stage of organization.

          Civilization roughly means a highly developed social structure enriched by cultural, economic, and creative factors. It can include many things, like how different sections form in the society, how we interact with each other, how we create artistic works, how we dress, or how we govern ourselves.

          Most early civilizations flourished on riverbanks. This was because the river made the land fertile, and ensured the supply of water for agriculture.