Category Kindoms of India

            With a Persian name that meant ‘conqueror of the world’, Jahangir ruled the Mughal Empire from 1605 till his death in 1627. He was the fourth Mughal Emperor and eldest son of the emperor Akbar.

            Jahangir was earlier known as Salim. Akbar had nominated Jahangir to succeed to his throne. However, he turned to be too impatient and began revolting for power in 1599. Akbar was engaged in the Deccan then. Still, Akbar confirmed Salim as his successor on his deathbed. Salim accepted the titular name Jahangir upon ascending the throne.

            Jahangir carried on his father’s legacy and tradition. The hundred year long fight between the Mughals and the Rajputs of Mewar ended during his reign. This happened in 1614. He treated Amar Singh, the successor of Rana Pratap of Mewar with honour and restored Chittor to him.

            Jahangir made Nur Jahan his wife. Some historians believe that Nur Jahan and her relatives controlled the throne, especially after Jahangir’s health became poor in 1622.

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            The Mughal Empire tripled in size and wealth during Akbar’s reign. He instituted effective political and social reforms in addition to building a strong military.

Akbar was the first Mughal ruler to win the trust and loyalty of the native subjects. Akbar’s court included Rajputs like Bhagwan Das, Todar Mal and Birbal. Even though he exercised control over many local Rajput rulers, he allowed them some independence.

            Akbar knew that a stable empire depended on the co-operation and good-will of his subjects, so he participated in native festivals. He also commissioned the translation of many Sanskrit works. His empire was truly multicultural; he even formed a new religion known as Din-i-Ilahi, taking the best elements from all religions.

           Akbar’s reign was chronicled extensively. Akbarnama and Ain-i-akbari, two works authored by his court historian Abul FazI talks about his reign in detail. The works of Badayuni, Shaikhzada Rashidi and Shaikh Ahmed Sirhindi also throw light about his reign.

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            The name Akbar is synonymous with the glory of the Mughal reign. Undoubtedly, Akbar is the greatest of the Mughal emperors of India. He is credited with expanding the Mughal power over the Indian subcontinent. But, things were not easy for him.

            When Akbar came to power following the death of his father Humayun in 1556, he was just 13. In the beginning, his tutor Bairam Khan helped him to rule. Bairam Khan defeated Hemu, a minister of Adil Shah of Bengal in the second battle of Panipat in 1556. This victory made him dominant and arrogant. So, Akbar forced Bairam Khan to retire in 1560. From then, he began to govern on his own.

          With his strong personality and success as a general, Akbar’s power grew day by day, almost over the entire Indian subcontinent. He enlarged the Mughal Empire to include nearly all of the Indian subcontinent to the north of the Godavari river. During his reign, everything concerning the Mughals including their military, politics, culture, and economy were superior to that of others. Akbar’s rule also led to commercial expansion and patronage of culture.

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            Delhi was twice ruled by Humayun. This son and successor of Babur ruled from 1530 to 1540 and again from 1555 to 1556.

            In 1530, when he ascended the throne of Delhi for the first time at the age of 22, Humayun was inexperienced. The Mughal territory in the Indian subcontinent was quite large and he had a hard time fighting many battles, in order to retain the territories conquered by his father.

            Bahadur Shah of Gujarat and Sher Khan, an Afghan based in Bihar were two of his main rivals. Humayun lost his kingdom by 1540.

           Humayun was strong enough to regain his lost kingdom. It was in 1555 that Humayun re-occupied Delhi after defeating Sikandar Shah Sur, one of the successors of Sher Khan. Humayun had fought many battles against Sher Khan. But just seven months after his significant victory over Sher Khan’s successor, Humayun fell down from the stairs of his library in Delhi, and died. At the time of his death in 1556, the Mughal Empire spanned almost one million square kilometres.

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             Before Babur established the Mughal rule, various Rajput kings fought for power against Ibrahim Lodi. Lodi’s Afghan chiefs too were a part of this power struggle.

           Around the same time, Babur raided India from Kabul several times, in search of wealth. It was Daulat Khan Lodi, the Afghan ruler of Punjab, and Rana Sanga, the Rajput ruler of Mewar, who sought Babur’s help to overthrow Ibrahim Lodi. Little did they know that Babur would establish his own kingdom in India, when they invited him.

             It started in 1525; Babur began his conquest in Delhi. In fact, he conquered most of north India in three major battles and some minor ones. He defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526, and after a year, Rana Sanga was overthrown at Khanva near Agra. Rana Sanga could not withstand Babur’s army though he was backed by many Rajput rulers and some Afghan chiefs.

             In a battle that was fought on the banks of river Ghagra, Babur defeated Nusrat Shah of Bengal and other Afghan chiefs; Nusrat Shah had teamed up with Mahmud Lodi, Ibrahim’s brother. This happened in 1529 and Babur died a year later.

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            The kings and nobles of the Vijayanagara Empire lived in royal splendour. Abdur Razzaq, the Persian ambassador to Vijayanagara, notes that the king’s palace had several cells filled with gold.

            Royal marriages were elegant displays of royal wealth. When King Deva Raya I’s daughter was married off to Firuz Shah Bahmani, the road from the city gate to the palace that spans over ten kilometres was draped with gold, velvet and satin cloth.

            Vijayanagara city was 96 kilometres in circumference; it had seven fortresses, four bazaars, and numerous streams and canals made of polished stone. Accounts of a traveller suggest that it was larger than Rome. Art and literature flourished in the wealthy empire; however, common people lived in poor conditions. Much of the riches of the Vijayanagara Empire was destroyed by wars.

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            Vijayanagara Empire reached the zenith of its power under King Krishnadeva Raya of the Tuluva dynasty. He was undoubtedly the greatest of the Vijayanagara kings.

           In addition to the already established presence in the south, he expanded his kingdom to include territories in the northern Deccan that were formerly under the Sultanate, and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalinga.

           Krishnadeva Raya was known as Andhra Bhoja as he was a great patron of the arts and literature. He was an author himself, who wrote both in Telugu and Sanskrit; he wrote Amuktamalyada (Telugu) and Jambavati Kalyanam (Sanskrit). His court was adorned by a group of eight celebrated poets known as Ashtadiggajas among whom, Allasani Peddana was the greatest.

           Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya. He built the famous temples of Krishnaswamy, Hazara Ramaswamy and Vitthalaswamy at his capital.

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             Also known as lmmadi Deva Raya, Deva Raya II who ruled the Vijayanagara Empire was one of the greatest rulers of the Indian subcontinent. From his inscriptions, it is known that he enjoyed the title ‘Gajabetegara’, the elephant hunter.

            It was Deva Raya II who began the practice of employing Muslims in the army. He is known for subduing Quilon. He is also the author of two Sanskrit works- Mahanataka Sudhanidhi, and a commentary on the Brahmasutras of Badrayana. Dindima was his court poet.

           The Vijayanagara Empire was engulfed in a bubble of confusion after the death of Deva Raya II. The rule of primogeniture, that is, the right of succession of the firstborn child was not established at the time of his death. This led to a series of civil wars among the contenders. The throne was finally usurped by the king’s minister Saluva Narsimha following which, the Saluva dynasty was established.

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            Harihara and Bukka were ministers of the ruler of Kampili in Karnataka. When Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq invaded Kampili, he captured them. However, they were sent back to Karnataka in an attempt to suppress the revolts that followed the invasion.

           Harihara and Bukka went back to build a new empire after defeating the Sultan. To commemorate their grand victory against the Sultan of Delhi, the capital of the newly formed kingdom was named Vijayanagara, meaning the city of victory. Later, the empire came to be known by this name.

           Harihara was the first to rule the kingdom, and Bukka succeeded his brother to the throne in 1336. He built the capital city of Vijayanagara, and by 1346, the whole of the Hoysala kingdom came under the rulers of Vijayanagara.

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           The Bahmani architecture is a blend of Iranian and Indian elements. They built many mosques, forts and tombs. In 1367, Muhammad Shah built the Jami Masjid at Gulbarga. Forts were built at Daulatabad, Narnala, Bidar, Warangal, Golconda, Mudgal and Raichur.

          The Daulatabad fort stands on an isolated rock. It is 186 metres high and the outer wall is four and a half kilometres in circumference, surrounded by a moat. The fort has three inner walls, with gateways and towers. The walls of the Bidar fort is fifteen and a half metres high, five kilometres in circumference, and is surrounded by a triple ditch cut out of rock.

          There are a series of royal tombs in Gulbarga. The tomb of Firuz Shah and his family holds a special place among them; it measures 48 metres by 24 metres and has shining plaster and painted designs inside the wall.

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           Though the Bahmani kingdom disintegrated after Emperor Krishnadeva Raya’s invasion, it gave birth to five smaller kingdoms- Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Berar, Golconda and Bidar.

           Yusuf Adil Shah founded the state of Bijapur in 1489 AD. Ibrahim Adil Shah, known for replacing Persian by Hindvi (Dakhini Urdu) as the official language is their best-known ruler. In 1686, Aurangzeb annexed Bijapur.

           In 1490, Malik Ahmad founded the kingdom of Ahmednagar. Within nine years, he annexed Daulatabad. He was succeeded by his son Burhan-i-Nizam Shah in 1508. The Mughals annexed the kingdom of Ahmednagar in 1636. Qutb Shah, a Turkish officer began the rule of the Qutb Shahi dynasty in Golconda. This happened in 1518 and a century and a half later, the kingdom of Golconda was annexed by the Mughals in 1687.

           The kingdom of Bidar was founded in 1526 under the Barid Shahi dynasty. It was annexed between 1619 and 1620 by Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur. Berar, founded in 1490, was annexed by Ahmednagar in 1574.

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           The roots of the Bahmani kingdom can be traced back to a revolt led by Zafar Khan. Zafar Khan revolted against Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq of the Delhi Sultanate to establish South India’s first independent Islamic kingdom.

           The Bahmani capital was shifted from Hasanabad (Gulbarga) to Muhammadabad (Bidar). The former served as the capital from 1347 to 1425. The kingdom reached the peak of its power and glory during the rule of Mahmud Gawan. However, the Bahmani kingdom collapsed after it was attacked by Emperor Krishnadeva Raya of the Vijayanagara Empire.

          The Bahmanis put great emphasis on education. Urdu flourished during their reign; learning of Persian and Arabic were also encouraged. It was in 1518 that the Bahmani power split into five states – Nizamshahi of Ahmednagar, Qutb Shahi of Golconda (Hyderabad), Baridshahi of Bidar, lmadshahi of Berar and Adilshahi of Bijapur. These five states are collectively known as the “Deccan Sultanates” today.

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           In the 14th century AD, while Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq’s rule terrified north India, two independent kingdoms emerged in the Deccan- the Vijayanagara and the Bahmani.

          The Bahmani kingdom located to the north covered parts of present Maharashtra, north Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, while the Vijayanagara Empire covered Andhra and Karnataka in the south.

           The regions between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra, and the Krishna-Godavari delta were abundant sources of fertile land suited for agriculture. The newly emerged kingdoms fought many wars to gain control over these regions. Wars were waged to control the Konkan coastline that had some major ports necessary for trade. The Bahmani kingdom controlled Golconda. It had diamond mines because of which, the kings of Vijayanagara were eager to conquer Golconda.

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           Art, architecture, and religion flourished in South India during the reign of the Hoysalas. Hundreds of temples scattered across Karnataka, noted for their attention to exquisite detail and skilled craftsmanship are the living examples of the architectural excellence of the Hoysala period.

           Many temples including the Chennakeshava Temple, Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple, Halebidu, and the Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura exhibit an amazing display of sculptural exuberance. In fact, the temple of Halebidu has been described as an important milestone in Indian architecture. It is a proposed UNESCO World Heritage Site.

          The Hoysalas patronized Kannada scholars at a time when Sanskrit literature was popular. The Hoysala rulers used Kannada to state the terms of grants including information on the land, its boundaries, the participation of local authorities, rights and obligations of the grantee, taxes and dues, and witnesses.

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           Regions now known as Karnataka were under the Hoysala Empire for almost four centuries, starting from the 10th century. The Hoysala rulers belonged to Malenadu, an elevated region in the Western Ghats. The Western Chalukya Empire and Kalachuris of Kalyani were constantly at war with each other. The Hoysalas made the best out of this situation by annexing the areas of present-day Karnataka and the fertile areas north of the Kaveri delta in present-day Tamil Nadu. By the 13th century, most of Karnataka, small parts of Tamil Nadu, and parts of western Andhra Pradesh and Telangana came under Hoysala rule.

           Vishnuvardhana was one of the prominent Hoysala kings. It was Vishnuvardhana who extended the Hoysala territory by fighting against the Cholas, Pandyas and other kingdoms. He also shifted his capital from Velapura to Dvarasamudra in Karnataka. The Hoysala territories were taken over by Vijayanagara after Alauddin Khalji’s general Malik Kafur destroyed Dvarasamudra.

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           Warangal’s history is entwined with the Kakatiyas, a South Indian dynasty that made Warangal its capital. The ancestry of the Kakatiyas can be traced back to a legendary chief named Durjaya. Though many other dynasties of Andhra Pradesh claim to be the descendants of Durjaya, nothing much is known about him. The Kakatiyas worshipped goddess “Kakati” and hence the name Kakatiya.

           Ganapati Deva, who assumed the title of ‘Rayagajekesari’ is the most famous Kakatiya king. He ruled for over 62 years, starting from 1199. He fought battles against the Yadavas, Cholas, Kalingas and the rulers of Karnataka and Gujarat. The famous Tikkana Somayaji was his court poet. He also patronized trade and commerce.

           The famous Rudrama devi who ruled as a queen for thirty years was Ganapati Deva’s daughter. The Kakatiyas declined after they were defeated by Malik Kafur, Alauddin Khalji’s general. This happened during the reign of Prataparudradeva following which, it merged with the Bahmani kingdom.

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           Before the Seunas or Yadavas came to power, they were feudatories either of the Chalukyas or of the Rashtrakutas. Around the mid-12th century, the power enjoyed by the Chalukyas waned. The Yadava king Bhillama V utilized this opportunity to declare independence.

           The Yadava kingdom was at its utmost splendour under Singhana II. With its capital at Devagiri, it was almost as large as that of the western Chalukyas, covering present-day west Maharashtra and parts of Madhya Pradesh.

           Singhana’s court had members from different areas of expertise including writers and scientists. The Yadava territory was annexed by the Sultan of Delhi around 1317.

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           The Delhi Sultanate expanded rapidly under Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq; constant wars soon emptied their treasury.

         The rulers of the Delhi Sultanate acquired power with sword and fire. So, there was no definite law of succession, and the raids from the Mongols were always a threat.

           The throne was sustained only by military strength and this became a source of political instability. Some of the nobles were more powerful than weak Sultans and local rulers continuously asserted their independence.

          It was the Iqtadari, Zamindari and Jagirdari systems that led to the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate. Peasants lived in a permanent state of poverty, while kings and nobles lived in great splendour. This alienated the common people from their rulers.

          The invasion by Babur brought down a Sultanate that was already in ruins.

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           Bahlul Khan, who once served as the Subedar (Governor) of Lahore and Sirhind during the reign of Muhammad Shah succeeded to the throne after the Sayyids. When he founded the Lodi dynasty, he was establishing the first Afghan Pashtun dynasty in India. It also happened to be the last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate that ruled from AD 1451 to 1526.

           Bahlul Khan Lodi’s efforts were directed in restoring the greatness of the Delhi Sultanate. He conquered territories surrounding Delhi and took necessary steps to stop rebellions and uprisings in his territories. His most successful war was against Mahmud Shah Sharqi of Jaunpur. During his reign, the Delhi Sultanate expanded territorially to include Gwalior, Mewat, Suket, Manipur and Bhongaon, and upper Uttar Pradesh, but his capital remained in Delhi.

           Bahlul Khan’s legacy continued through his son Nizam Khan. Nizam Khan ascended the throne in AD 1489.

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           By the time Firuz Shah, cousin of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq came to power in 1351, the empire had become too large. There were hardly any loyal nobles because of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq’s notorious policies. Many provinces had asserted independence as well.

           Firuz wanted to keep his army, nobles and priests happy. He gave back their hereditary rights and land to the nobles and the army. He gave the ulamas – religious scholars- high offices. He also persecuted those whom they did not like.

           Firuz abstained from administering harsh punishments and focussed on building hospitals, canals, rest-houses and towns. He also worked to improve farming. As a result of all these, trade flourished. Though his reign was marked by peace and prosperity, his authority and control reduced significantly. No strong kings emerged from the Tughlaq dynasty after his death.

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           Ghazi Malik established a new dynasty that came to be known as Tughlaq and took the titular name, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq.

           History repeated itself when Ghazi Malik ascended the throne in 1320. The nobles revolted and the provinces began asserting their independence again. But, he slowly gained the support of the nobles as he let them retain their privileges.

           When it came to military matters, he continued Alauddin’s policies. In order to keep the Mongol invasions in check, he fortified the North-Western border. His son Ulugh Khan was sent on an expedition to the Kakatiya capital Warangal which resulted in the annexation of the city.

           The manner of the death of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq is quite suspicious; he died due to the collapse of a wooden pavilion while he was returning from Bengal after putting down a revolt there.

           Though his death seemed natural, some historians believe that he died because of a conspiracy hatched by his son Ulugh Khan.

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           Alauddin’s was the largest empire since Ashoka, but things were not so smooth when he ascended the throne. Many provinces had gained independence, frequent revolts disturbed peace and his nobles started plotting against him. In an attempt to reduce the power enjoyed by the nobles, he cancelled their land grants and took away their extra wealth. He spied on them; they were not allowed to mingle with each other, have parties, or arrange marriage alliances.

          Alauddin’s conquests were nothing less than other great emperors; the kings of the south used to pay tributes to him in gold. He conquered Gujarat, Ranthambore, Siwana, Malwa, Chittor, Jalor and Bengal. He is said to have had a large army consisting of 300,000 soldiers. His horses were branded so that it was easy to identify them.

           Alauddin controlled the markets and fixed prices for all goods. He also made notable changes in tax collection. His reign of terror came to an end in 1316 with the death of the ruthless ruler. Four years later, Ghazi Malik, a noble who proclaimed himself Sultan ascended the throne.

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           Ghiyas-ud-din Balban was once a slave of Iltutmish who later became a minister because of his hard work and intelligence. Balban later took over the throne in 1266 to became the tenth sultan from the Slave dynasty. Though he defended his territory from the Mongols, he had to put down many rebellions to retain power.

           Balban tried to tighten the grip of his authority: his nobles had to wear special dress into the court, and bow down before him. He had a powerful army that silenced any voices of dissent by killing all males of a particular area!

           However, he ruled his empire ably with the help of a balanced administrative system. He reorganized the army, built new forts, cleared dense forests and made the roads safe for travel. Unlike Balban, his successors were weak and the Slave Dynasty eventually declined with the rise of the Khaljis.

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           The Khaljis, who took over from the Slave kings became the second dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate. Jalaluddin Khalji, the first Khalji Sultan was seventy years old when he took over the throne in 1290.

           The Khaljis were of Afghan origin unlike the Slave kings who were Ilbari Turks. After ascending the throne, Jalaluddin was kind enough to allow the Turkish nobles to retain their posts and pardoned most of his enemies who had been fighting for the throne.

           Alauddin, Jalaluddin’s son-in-law and nephew, helped him to put down the unrest that prevailed in the kingdom and defended the area from the Mongols. But, Alauddin was not as naive as he seemed; he wanted the throne for himself. So, he killed Jalaluddin and had his head carried through the provinces!

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          Razia Sultana, Iltutmish’s daughter created history as she was the first woman to rule from Delhi. She is also famous for taking control by replacing Iltutmish’s son. Her brother was unpopular among the nobles.

          Razia wore men’s clothes and knew how to fight. She was also good at hunting and rode horses. Many historians viewed her reign as spirited and dynamic. At the zenith of her power, her empire included large parts of modern Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.

           Razia Sultana was believed to be devoted to the cause of her empire and to her subjects. She preferred to mingle with her subjects and they liked her. But, it seems her nobles were not quite fond of her; some of them plotted against her and captured her. She found refuge in Malik Altunia, one of her nobles who eventually married her. Though both of them decided to go to Delhi to defeat the other nobles, they were abandoned by their soldiers on the way and were eventually killed.

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           The Slave kings had a line of prominent rulers like Qutub-ud-din Aibak and Iltutmish. Qutub-ud-din Aibak, the founder of the dynasty was actually a slave of Muhammed Ghori who helped him to conquer India by defeating many Rajput kings. After his death in 1206, Aibak rose to power. However, his reign as the Sultan of Delhi did not last long.

           Aibak’s short-lived rule came to an end with his death in 1210. His son Aram Shah rose to power. Iltutmish, who was once Aibak’s slave defeated Aram Shah in 1211 and went on to become the next Sultan. He also married Aibak’s daughter and is responsible for shifting the capital from Lahore to Delhi.

           Iltutmish is remembered for organizing the administration of the Sultanate and laying the foundation for its dominance over northern India until the Mughal invasion. Iltutmish expanded his domain by defeating the rulers of Ghazni, Multan and Bengal. These kingdoms had previously annexed some of the territories and threatened his domain. He also conquered Ranthambore and Siwalik from their rulers.

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           Their passion for Tamil literature and zeal for building marvellous temples resulted in the production of some of the finest pieces in literature and architecture. These works stood the test of time, bearing the true stamp of the Chola legacy.

           The Chola kings were avid builders. For them, temples were not places of worship alone, but also centre of economic activity.

           Among the temples they built, the Shiva temple at Tanjavur and the temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram are the most famous. The temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram has a vimana, 100 feet square at the base and 186 feet high.

           The Cholas also commissioned great many sculptures; Chola sculptures and bronze images include Nataraja, the divine dancer Shiva, dancing the dance of death and destruction. They also pioneered a centralized form of government, thereby establishing a disciplined bureaucracy.

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           In the 9th century, the Cholas emerged as a strong presence in the south when Vijayalaya captured Tanjavur from the Pandyas. He was a Pallava feudatory who managed to establish the Chola Empire. It was later inherited by Aditya Chola who took over the Pallava Empire.

           Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra I were the greatest Chola rulers under whom, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia. They expanded the borders of the Chola Empire by taking over the territories ruled by the Pandyas and the Cheras. Their conquests reached as far as Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Sumatra and other places in the Malay Peninsula.

           They also fought against the western Gangas and Chalukyas. Rajendra Chola I even went north up to Bengal and on his return, he built Gangaikondacholapuram (city of the Chola conquerer of the Ganga), a new capital.

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However, the Chola Empire declined at the beginning of the thirteenth century AD.

           With his capital as Mahodayapuram in present day Kodungallur, Kulashekhara Alwar established the second Chera dynasty. Kulashekhara is also credited with writing Perumal Thirumozhi, one of the most celebrated devotional works of the Tamil Bhakti cult.

           Rama Varma Kulashekhara was the last Chera King of the second Chera dynasty who ruled from AD 1090 to 1102. He fought a war with his contemporary Chola ruler Kulothunga Choladeva, but the prolonged wars weakened the Chera power. Some Naduvazhis (chiefs) took advantage of this chaotic situation to assert their power.

           The Chera kingdom was known for its foreign trade relations; many Arab travellers described the economic boom achieved by the state from its foreign trade. Mahodayapuram fell into the hands of the kingdom of Perumpadappu after the Chera rule.

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           The art and architecture that came into being during their reign speak for the glory of the Pallavas. The Pallavas were pioneers in art and architecture in the south.

          The Pallavas constructed the first stone and mortar temples of south India. They also made cave temples, rock sculptures and brick temples, all of which can be found at Mahabalipuram.

           Rock-cut temples came to be built in various parts of Tamil Nadu during the period of Mahendravarman I, the most important ones being at Pallavaram, Mamandur and Thalavanur. Narasimhavarman I became famous for building monolithic rathas, the notable ones being the fall of the river Ganga from the head of Lord Shiva, and Arjuna’s penance.

          The construction of structural temples began during the reign of Rajasimha. They came to be known so as they were built using granite slabs. The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram, with two vimanas surrounded by seated nandis is one of the remarkable structural temples.

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          The Pallavas reasserted their power in the 6th century AD, after defeating the Kalabhras.

          During the rule of Mahendravarman I and Narasimhavarman I, the Pallavas dominated the Telugu and northern parts of the Tamil region. With Kanchi as their capital, they established themselves as a major power and ruled for about 600 years. The Chinese traveller Hieun Tsang visited Kanchi during the reign of Narasimhavarman I. In his descriptions, he notes that Kanchi had fertile soil.

           The climate was hot and the region produced plenty of grain, and many flowers and fruits. The area also produced precious gems. The people were courageous, honest and truthful.

           The Chalukyas of Badami and the Tamil kingdoms of the Cholas and the Pandyas were in constant conflict during the reign of the Pallavas.

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           The Rashtrakutas occupied the territory that was earlier ruled by the Chalukyas; Dantidurga established his kingdom in the western Deccan in AD 735, after defeating the Chalukyas. Dantidurga is said to be the son of a Chalukyan princess Bhavanaga. He took the titles Rajadhiraja and Parameshvara after defeating the Chalukyas.

           The Rashtrakuta kings expanded their territory by winning wars against the Pallavas, Cholas and other prominent rulers of south India. In the north, they fought against the Pratiharas and Palas and even occupied Kanauj for a while.

           Amoghavarsha occupied a special place amongst the Rashtrakuta kings; he was known for his learning and liking for Jainism. Krishna III, who annexed part of the Chola Empire in AD 949, is known as the last great Rashtrakuta king.

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            The rule of the Chalukyas is often regarded as the Golden Age of Karnataka. A huge shift happened in the politics of south India with the ascendancy of the Badami Chalukyas, as smaller kingdoms were replaced by large empires.

           Their kingdom based in south India took control over and consolidated the entire region between the rivers Kaveri and Narmada.

           This period saw an exemplary administration, a rise in overseas trade and commerce, and the development of a new style of architecture called the ‘Chalukyan architecture’.

           Kannada literature enjoyed royal patronage during the reign of the Western Chalukyas, while the Eastern Chalukyas patronized Telugu literature.

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             It was after the death of Pulakeshin II that the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom. They established themselves in the eastern Deccan and started ruling from Vengi. Pulakeshin II, who conquered the eastern Deccan in AD 616 had appointed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as the governor of the new territory.

           Territorial disputes flared up between the Rashtrakutas, the new rulers of the western Deccan, and the Eastern Chalukyas after the decline of the Badami Chalukya Empire. This was followed by the subjugation of the Eastern Chalukyas by the Rashtrakutas for much of the next two centuries.

           The Eastern Chalukyas were notorious for causing many wars between the Cholas and the Western Chalukyas; both the kingdoms fought over the control of the strategic Vengi region.

           Telugu culture, literature, poetry and art flourished during the latter half of the rule of the Eastern Chalukyas.

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  As soon as Pulakeshin II ascended the throne in AD 610, he granted pardon to all those who opposed his succession in order to restore peace. He then worked to strengthen the law and order situation throughout his kingdom and settle other primary needs of the people.

          It won’t be wrong to say that Pulakeshin II, lived up to his name that meant ‘great lion’. He captured Vanavasi from the Kadambas, took over parts of the Pallava territory and defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of the river Narmada. As per an inscription found in Ai-hole, Pulakeshin ruled over ninety-nine thousand villages. He instilled fear in the kings of the neighbouring areas.

          Battles were not the only thing he was famous for; he was one of the most benevolent administrators as well. Pulakeshin II sent an ambassador to the court of Khusru II, king of Persia and had temples constructed in his kingdom. He was defeated and killed by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman in AD 642.

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          Afghanistan and Gandhara were ruled by the descendants of Kushanas. Later, Turkish Shahiya kings were replaced by the Hindu-Shahi dynasty. Jayapala became the ruler of the Shahi kingdom in the late 10th century AD; he ruled over west Punjab, the North-West Frontier Province, and east Afghanistan. But, this kingdom was brought to the ground by Mahmud of Ghazni in the 11th century AD.

          The Karkota dynasty established themselves in Kashmir in the 7th century AD. Lalitaditya Muktapida was the most famous among their line of kings, who conquered parts of Punjab and defeated Yashovarman of Kanauj. Kamarupa was an independent state in the north-east through which, important trade routes from eastern India to east Tibet and China, passed. In the 16th century, the Ahom kingdom came into prominence in Assam.

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          The Rajputs were not a single dynasty; they were chivalric, land owning Kshatriyas from north India and Gujarat. The Rajputs had many branches like Gurjara-Pratiharas, Chahamanas, Solankis and Vaghelas.

           Several Rajput-ruled kingdoms played a significant role in many regions of central and north India. The kingdom of Mewar ruled by the Sisodias was the first major Rajput kingdom. Most of their subjects were farmers. Trade and commerce flourished in their times. Though the Rajputs were strong and brave, they failed to accomplish much.

         They were always fighting with each other and seldom united even against a common foe. The feudal system also proved disastrous for the Rajputs. They were great patriots of their clan; but they cared more for their chiefs and clans rather than the country as a whole.

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         The death of Harsha was followed by a struggle for power in north India by many dynasties; Kanauj was the centre of all these struggles. Many of these dynasties called themselves Rajputs. The name Rajput came from Raja-putra, sons of kings.

         The Pratiharas, the Gahadavalas, the Palas, the Senas, the Chahamanas or Chauhans, the Chandellas, the Kalachuris, the Guhilas, the Solankis and the Paramaras were some of the known kingdoms of this period. The Pratiharas ruled over the area around Jodhpur while the Gahadavalas ruled over most of Uttar Pradesh. The Palas remained in power till the 1150s.

         The Chauhans ruled in Shakambhari in the 7th century AD. Prithviraj Chauhan was the last Chauhan ruler. For a long time, the Chandellas controlled the land of the Pratiharas. They later became independent and ruled Bundelkhand. During their rule, the Chandellas built many important temples, the most famous among them being those at Khajuraho, in Madhya Pradesh.

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          The Chinese traveller Hieun Tsang once visited the court of Harsha following which, he wrote an account. In it, he praised Harsha’s justice and generosity. The peace and prosperity that prevailed in Harsha’s empire made it a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors from far and wide.

          Though Harshavardhana had many officials to help him with administration, he was a king who liked to personally supervise his kingdom. Harsha’s empire was divided into provinces and he travelled around all of them, spending nights in different places, listening to people’s troubles.

          King Harsha is said to have had a large army comprising 100,000 horses and 60,000 elephants. At the zenith of Harsha’s power, his empire covered much of north and north-western India and extended up to Kamarupa in the east, and river Narmada in the south. Harsha also tried to expand his empire into the southern peninsula of India, but was halted by the south Indian Emperor Pulakeshin II of the Chalukya dynasty.

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           Of all the small kingdoms that emerged in the north after the Gupta Empire, the Vardhanas emerged as prominent rulers. Known also as Pushyabhuti or Pushpabhuti, the Vardhanas ruled during the 6th and 7th centuries. Their kingdom flourished and was at its peak under Harshavardhana, the last Vardhana ruler.

          The political supremacy of the Vardhanas helped them gain imperial status and established them as a powerful kingdom. Harshavardhana shifted the capital from Sthanvishvara (modern Thanesar, Haryana) to Kanyakubja (modern Kanauj, Uttar Pradesh), from where he ruled until AD 647. Later, Kanauj became the capital of several future kingdoms.

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          The Kadambas were an ancient dynasty of Karnataka. They ruled till about AD 560 when they were overthrown by the ChaIukyas. With Mayurasharman being the first king who ruled from AD 345 to 360, the Kadambas ruled from Banavasi in present day Uttara Kannada district.

          The Western Gangas were important rulers of ancient Karnataka, who initially ruled from Kolar. Their rule spanned from about AD 350 to 1000 and in the meantime, their capital was shifted to Talakad. Konganivarman, who called himself Dharma Mahadhiraja was the first Ganga king.

          The early Pallavas ruled a place known as Tondainadu, to the south-east of the Satavahana Empire. The early Pallavas ruled from AD 275 to 550, with Kanchi as their capital. Skandavarman, Simhavarman and Buddhavarman were some of the notable early Pallava kings.

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          The Vakataka Empire was formally established in the last quarter of the third century AD. Purika in Berar was the capital of the Vakataka Empire and Vindhyasakti was one of the earliest kings of the dynasty. Vindhyasakti expanded his territory to-wards the north of the Vindhyas that included areas where the Narmada and Godavari flowed.

          However, the real founder of the Vakataka Empire was Pravarasena I, who ascended the throne after his father Vindhyasakti and called him-self Samrat. Under Pravarasena I, the kingdom expanded further north as far as the Narmada. Prithvisena was the last known king of the dynasty, and their rule ended between AD 515 and 550.

          The lkshvakus ruled over Vengi, the fertile deltas of the Krishna and the Godavari in the east. The lkshvaku dynasty was founded by Vasishthiputra Chantamula who rose to power after the decline of the Satavahanas. He was succeeded by his son Virapurusadata, who came to power in AD 275. However, this dynasty declined by the mid-4th century and the rulers may have been reduced to vassal status.

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          Numerous small kingdoms thrived to the south of the Vindhyas while the Guptas ruled in the north. Some of these smaller kingdoms lasted only for a few hundred years. These kingdoms constantly fought with each other to gain wealth and power.

          Among the main kingdoms in the Deccan were those ruled by the Vakatakas and the lkshvakus. Other kingdoms included those of the Kadambas, Gangas and early Pallavas.

          These kingdoms were gifted with fertile land. So, the kings tried to get control of fertile lands that included the flat coastal strip and the alluvial land between two rivers, and also the ports and other major trade centres.

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          Aryabhatiya, an astronomical treatise of 118 verses written by Aryabhata of Pataliputra came out in the Gupta age. The mathematical section of Aryabhatiya covers algebra, arithmetic, plane and spherical trigonometry, and quadratic equations. It is in this work that Aryabhata displays an awareness of both the zero and the decimal system.

          Apart from Aryabhatiya, he also wrote the Aiya-siddhanta, a lost work on astronomical computations, which is known through the writings of Aryabhata’s contemporary, Varahamihira, and later mathematicians and commentators, including Brahmagupta and Bhaskara I. Romaka Siddhanta was another popular book on astronomy which was written down in the Gupta period. It was influential on the work of Varahamihira.

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         Though scripting was not a prominent practice in India, many works of importance that were earlier recited were documented and given a final form during the Gupta Age. This includes the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Panchatantra, some of the Puranas, and the Smritis or law books. Sanskrit literature grew richer and reached its peak during the reign of the Guptas.

          Kalidasa, who authored Meghaduta, Abhijnana Shakuntalam, Raghuvamsa and many other works was the finest writer of the Gupta age. Other interesting literary figures of the period include Visakhadatta, the author of the celebrated drama Mudra Rakshasa, Bhartrihari who renounced the world to lead a saintly life, Vishnusharma, the author of the famous Panchatantra and Shudraka, the dramatist who wrote Mrichchhakatika.

          Another notable contribution of this period is the compilation of Amarakosha by Amarasimha, who was a grammarian and poet in the court of Chandragupta II. Based on the work of Panini and Patanjali, Sanskrit grammar too developed during the Gupta age.

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          The Gupta kingdom was divided into provinces and districts. The cities were governed by councils, which had representatives of different professionals while the villages were looked after by the elders of the villages. Most of the cities were planned and neatly laid out in a grid pattern with roads in a crisscross fashion. The cities had two- and three- storeyed houses. Kalidasa’s accounts talk about people gazing down at the street through latticed windows.

          Apart from grain and vegetables, the markets were stocked with things made of metals, stone, terracotta, ivory, precious and semi-precious stones, and pearls. The pottery was plain red and sometimes had a brown slip or polish. The kingdom had trade relations with the Byzantine Empire, China, Java, Sumatra, Arabia and even Ethiopia.

          Inscriptions describe the Gupta kings as being equal to the gods; Maharajadhiraja and Paramarajadhiraja were some of the elaborate titles that described the Gupta kings.

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          Samudragupta was the son of Chandragupta I, who ascended the throne after defeating his rival Kacha, an obscure prince of the dynasty. He ruled from around AD 335 to 380; we know of his conquests from a rock pillar at Allahabad and a lengthy poem of praise composed by his court-poet Harishena.

          It seems that Samudragupta had directly controlled a large part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain as well as a considerable part of central India. As per the inscription on the pillar at Allahabad, Samudragupta appears to have been a wise king and a strict administrator, who was also compassionate enough to help the poor and the helpless. He had great interest in music and poetry. Some of his gold coins represent him playing on the lyre.

          Harishena, his court poet describes him as the hero of a hundred battles; no Wonder historians call him the ‘Napoleon of India’.

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          The Guptas came into power in North India around the 3rd century AD, much after the establishment of the Satavahana kingdom. They existed till AD 543 and are considered as one of the most important dynasties of North India. The Gupta kingdom spread over much of the Indian subcontinent and some historians identify this period as the Golden Age of India.

          Sri Gupta is the first among the known Gupta kings. He was followed by Ghatotkacha. Though not much is known about their early history, they are assumed to have been minor rulers in east Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II, also known as Vikramaditya are the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty. Other Gupta rulers including Purugupta, Buddhagupta, Baladitya etc., were weak rulers.

          The Gupta Empire gradually went into decline and by AD 543, they had lost all their territories. After the Guptas, the Hunas occupied Malwa and part of central India and the eastern states became independent. The Maitrakas of Valabhi established themselves in western India while the Vardhanas or Pushyabhutis occupied Haryana.

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          The vast empire of the Satavahanas had a feudal administrative system. The empire was divided into smaller portions headed by feudal lords, who managed the administration and land revenue system. The Satavahana rulers did not believe in the divine rights of a king; they ruled in accordance with the directives of the Dharma Shastras and social customs.

          The king was the head of the government and the protector of his people, who had a council of ministers to aid him in rightful administration.

          The Satavahana kings were also known for the friendly ties with their subjects; they regarded their subjects as their own children and always looked after their welfare. They were also known for their efficient military with the help of which the Satavahanas succeeded in expanding their empire. The king himself was the commander-in-chief of his forces and fought battles alongside other soldiers. He also kept a regiment posted in each village for maintaining peace and order at the expense of the rural inhabitants.

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          The Satavahana kingdom was built around the 1st century BC, in the ruins of the Mauryan Empire. Also known as the Andhra dynasty, the Satavahana kingdom was situated in the north-western region of Deccan, with its capital at Pratishtana.

          The Satavahana dynasty was founded by Simuka and his successors established their authority, from the mouth of the Krishna to the rest of the Deccan plateau. The Satavahana king killed the last Kanva ruler of Magadha and took over his kingdom.

          Due to his policy of military expansion, Satakarni I was the earliest of the Satavahana kings to receive widespread recognition. He defied Kharavela of Kalinga and was known as the ‘Lord of the West. Satakarni I gained control over the region of Sanchi and his conquests took him far to the north of the Narmada into eastern Malwa. After his conquest of the Godavari valley in the south, he came to be known as the ‘Lord of Dakshinpatha’.

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          The Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras were blessed with fertile land where rice, ragi, sugarcane, pepper and spices were grown. The kingdoms were neatly divided into cities, towns, ports and villages. The royal palaces were well decorated and surrounded by gardens.

          Nedunjeliyan’s palace was a marvel; it had priceless lamps, ivory beds and ‘beautiful cushions. The rich had houses built of brick, while the poor and the villagers lived in mud and thatched structures.

          All the three kingdoms were known for their large armies comprising of elephants, horses, chariots and foot-soldiers. Horses were imported from overseas. The kingdoms of the south had good trade relations inland and abroad, and were a hub of art and crafts.

         Religions of the south were greatly influenced by the north; though there were Brahmanas, Jains, Buddhists and Ajivikas, Brahmanas gained dominance over time. Local people also worshipped hero-stones that were erected when someone was killed in battle.

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          There was no practice of recording history during the Chola period, but Ashoka’s inscriptions talk about the Cholas. Elara and Karikala Chola were two important Chola kings; Elara conquered Sri Lanka in 2nd century BC following which, Karikala Chola built Puhar, a large port that acted as a centre of trade.

          The name Karikala meant ‘elephant feller’ or ‘charred leg’. He was very rich; the tale of a poet who received a gift of 1,600,000 gold pieces from Karikala Chola is famous.

          Another Chola king, Kochchenganan is mentioned in Kalavali by Poygayar. He fought a battle with the Chera king Kanaikkal lrumporai following which the latter was imprisoned. Poygayar, who was a friend of the Chera king, wrote a poem praising Kochchenganan’s battle; Kochchenganan was pleased with the poem and freed the prisoner! The Chola monarchs were good administrators; they were friendly to the subjects and therefore approachable. Justice was meted out directly by the king on most occasions. Chola kings often took to the battlefield in person. They also had good trade relations with the Roman Empire.

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          Much of what is said about the Pandyas in modern histories comes from archaeological and numismatic evidences. The Pandyan kingdom lay to the south of the Mauryan Empire and their capital was shifted from Korkai, to Koodal (now Madurai) during the reign of Nedunjeliyan I. Nedunjeliyan II is the most popular warrior among the early Pandyas; he won the battle at Talaialanganam, against an army of Cholas and Cheras and five other kingdoms combined.

          With Korkai being the hub of trade, the Pandyan kingdom was known for its pearl fisheries. They even had active maritime trade relationships with the west; they used to export pearls, spices, ivory and shells. The Pandyan Empire was also home to famous temples including the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai, and Nellaiappar Temple in Tirunelveli.

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          Long time ago, three literary meetings (sangams) were held in Madurai under the patronage of the Pandya kings. Poets and writers came to these sangams to recite their works and listen to the works of others. This period is known as the Sangam Age and the works that were composed by the Tamil poets during the Sangam Age is known today as Sangam Literature.

          Though some of the works were lost in time, most of it including Tholkappiyam- a book of grammar, Ettutogai- eight collections of poems and two long poems known as Pattuppattu exist even today. The earliest work among these is the Tholkappiyam. Authored by Tholkappiyar, the book provides information on social, economic and political conditions of the Sangam Age along with treatises on Tamil grammar.

          Pathinenkilkanakku, eighteen works dealing with ethics and morals were composed post the Sangam Age among which Thiruvalluvar’s Thirukkural is the most popular. Two other popular works, Silappathigaram by Ilango Adigal and Manimekalai by Sittalai Sattanar belong to the post-Sangam period.

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          The Pandyas, Cheras and Cholas, three ancient Tamil dynasties ruled the south of India for a long period of time.

          The Pandyas were one of the longest ruling dynasties in the history of India; they occupied the southernmost part of the peninsula and ruled the Tamil country from pre-historic times until the end of the 15th century.

          The Cholas lived to the north-east of the Pandyas. Positioned between Pennar and Velar rivers, the Chola land was fertile. Though their capital was Uraiyur, it was shifted to Puhar (Kaveripattanam) later.

          The Cheras lived in the south-west of Tamil Nadu, in present-day Kerala. The Chera kingdom was renowned for buffaloes, jack-fruit, pepper and turmeric. The Chera rule belongs to two different time-periods-the Sangam Age and post 9th century AD. These three dynasties were constantly at war with each other.

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          The kingdoms that emerged after the decline of the Mauryas were not as mighty as them. The Mauryas were succeeded by the Shungas; Pushyamitra Shunga killed the last Mauryan king Brihadrata around 189 BC to establish his kingdom. Apart from Pushyamitra Shunga, there were nine other Shunga kings who ruled over Magadha and the Gangetic valley.

          The Shunga rule came to an end when Vasudeva of the Kanva dynasty overthrew the last Shunga ruler. He was followed by four other Kanva kings who ruled from Magadha. Kalinga became an independent kingdom after Ashoka’s reign, around the first century BC. Kharavela was the most famous among the Kalinga kings. He made rock-caves for the Jain monks in the hills of Orissa.

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          Gandhara Art, the Buddhist visual art in which images were carved in a realistic Greco-Roman style with graceful bodies and curly hair, developed during the Kushana reign. Buddhist and Jaina sculptures of a different style were produced in Mathura too. These Buddha, statues were made of red sand-stone and looked fatter and happier. Many stupas too were built in this era.

          Literature flourished during the Kushana reign. Ashvaghosha was an important writer who belongs to this period who wrote Buddhacharita, a biography of Buddha. Mahayana Buddhist texts including the Mahavastu and the Divyavadana were also scripted around the same time. Jatakas or stories about the Buddha’s previous births too were written around this time.

          Astronomy, astrology and medicine were other fields that progressed during the Kushana rule. Charaka and Sushruta, two notable Ayurvedic practitioners wrote on numerous plants and herbs that were used in the treatment of diseases.

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          The Kushanas were a branch of the Yueh-Chih tribe who ruled over north India from about AD 50 to 300. They were spread across Afghanistan to the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent at least till Varanasi.

          Kujula, the first known Kushana king defeated the Parthians and occupied Kabul around AD 50. Kadphises II, who called himself Lord of the World, succeeded Kujula and conquered parts of north India.

          Kanishka was the most famous among the Kushana kings. His territory spanned from the north-west over most of the Gangetic valley and had two capitals Purushapura (Peshawar) in present-day Pakistan and Mathura. He even tried to expand his territory to China. Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism and was instrumental in the establishment of the Buddhist way of life in the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia and China.

          Though their territories slowly grew smaller, the Kushana rule continued for another 150 years until they were finally overpowered by the Sassanians in the north-west and the Guptas in the north.

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          The Shakas or Scythians were nomadic tribes of central Asia who over-threw the Greeks to establish their kingdom in Bactria. They moved to the Indian subcontinent as a result of the attack by the Yueh-Chih tribe of the Gansu province of northwestern China.

          Different parts of India were under the control of Shakas. Maues or Moga was the first Shaka king to establish a kingdom around Taxila, in 80 BC. It was his successor, Azes who attacked Hippostratos, the last of the Greek kings in northern India.

          Rudradaman I, who ruled over Gujarat, the Konkan, the Narmada valley, Malwa and Kathiawar is unarguably the most important Shaka king. He is credited with the repairing of Sudarshana Lake, built by the Mauryas, to irrigate the dry region of Saurashtra.

          The Shaka kingdom was divided into provinces, each headed by a military governor called mahakshatrapa. These provinces were further sub-divided into units that came under the control of lesser governors. The mahakshatrapas were vested with the power to issue their own inscriptions and mint their own coins.

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          While the Mauryans perished, many other kingdoms flourished; the north-west was under the control of Indo-Greeks, Scythians and Parthians while Kalinga became an independent kingdom. The Shungas, followed by the Kanvas ruled Magadha and the Gangetic valley and the Shakas ruled Gujarat.

          Around 200 BC, Demetrios, the Bactrian Greek king, moved towards India. Around the same time, the Scythians who were Eurasian nomads, began invading India. North-west India did not have a powerful ruler after the decline of the Mauryan Empire. Therefore, it was easy for the lndo-Greek invaders including Menander and Demetrios to establish their kingdoms, as far as Uttar Pradesh. But these kings did not rule for long.

          Menander was the most famous among the lndo-Greek rulers. A description from the book Milinda Panha or The Questions of Menander indicates that his capital at Sakala -in present-day Pakistan- was full of parks, gardens, tanks, beautiful buildings, well laid out streets and strong walls.

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          We know about, life during the Mauryan rule through the accounts Of Chanakya and Megasthenes. People lived in cities and villages. Agriculture was the main source of livelihood. A lot of artisans thrived during this period.

          Also, there were traders and merchants who sold their goods to far-off lands and even overseas. Soldiers defended the kingdom while philosophers and religious practitioners sought the truth of life and death.

          The Mauryans had contact with different regions of the world including Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Egypt, Syria and Macedonia. Ring wells and stupas were common during this period, the most famous stupa being the Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh.

          Punch-marked coins, silver coins stamped with different symbols like the sun, elephants, snakes, and trees, dogs catching hares, rabbits and mushrooms were also widespread.

          There are hundreds of other symbols. They may have been signs of particular kings, or may have indicated groups of merchants and artisans.

          The Mauryan Empire had set exemplary standards in administration as well.

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          After the war with Kalinga, Ashoka found himself busy with the mission of eradicating sorrow from his land. He called himself Devanam priya priyadarsin, or the beloved of the gods, the one dear to be-hold. His policy of Dharma was carved onto rock pillars and the rest of his life was devoted to charity. He had trees planted, wells dug, and hospitals built for humans and animals. He also made sure that parents were honoured and received respectful treatment from their children.

          He made sure that animals were not killed unnecessarily and banned the killing of animals for meat. He also made a long list of animals, birds and fish which were never to be killed; the list included animals with young ones, squirrels, monkeys, boneless fish, and the queen ant. Ashoka appointed officials, known as Dhamma Mahamattas, to see that all this was done.

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          Up until the war with Kalinga, Ashoka was quite a bloodthirsty king, with a fierce urge to conquer the world. The battle- fields of Kalinga changed Ashoka’s life; a power-hungry king who believed in the mantra of ‘conquer and rule’ became a follower of Buddha, who firmly believed in the ultimate victory of Dharma.

          Kalinga was an independent kingdom in present-day Orissa and lay in the path of many important trade routes. It was not difficult for a ruler like Ashoka to conquer Kalinga. Once the war ended, Ashoka ventured out to roam around the countryside. Though he expected to see glory around, all he could find were burnt houses and scattered corpses. The inscription on his thirteenth rock edict says, ‘One hundred and fifty thousand people were captured, one hundred thousand were killed and many times that number perished’.

          The war of Kalinga transformed him. The vengeful king became a stable and peaceful emperor. Realizing that the real conquest was the conquest of the heart, he became a patron of Buddhism.

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          During Ashoka’s reign, the Mauryan Empire stretched across present-day Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east. With its capital in Pataliputra, his empire had provincial capitals at Taxila and Ujjain during his rule from 268 to 232 BC. There was not a similarly large empire, so majestic in the Indian subcontinent again until the medieval period. The grandson of the founder of the Maurya dynasty, Ashoka the Great is considered by many to be one of India’s greatest emperors.

          King Ashoka wanted his words to be remembered and known for as long as the sun and the moon existed. Therefore, his words were engraved on rock pillars. We know a lot about Ashoka from these edicts, found across present-day Afghanistan in the north-west, to Karnataka in the south. Ashoka wanted the common man to understand these inscriptions, so they were written in Pali, rather than Sanskrit.

          Ashoka died in 232 BC and just fifty years after his death, the last Maurya ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated.

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          After Chandragupta Maurya’s death, Bindusara ascended the throne of the Mauryan Empire in 297 BC. His fancy name made way to a lot of legends. A popular one is as follows:

          His mother was poisoned before he was born, so the unborn child was placed in the womb of a goat. When he was born, his body was covered with spots and hence the name Bindusara, the spotted one. Among the Greeks, Bindusara was known as Amitrochates. This Greek-sounding name came from the Sanskrit ‘Amitra-ghata’ which meant the slayer of foes’.

          Unlike his father Chandragupta or son Ashoka, Bindusara’s life has not been well documented, and most of what we know about him comes from legends. He is said to have conquered parts of south India. The works of early Tamil poets tell us about Mauryan chariots with white flags racing across their land.

          He preferred the Ajivika philosophy over Jainism; the Ajivikas were considered atheists then.

Picture Credit : Google