Category Lost Civilizations

               The Incas established a mighty empire that stretched along the Pacific coast of South America. The early rulers defeated the other tribes of Cuzco. The early kings were called Sinchi. It was only from the rule of the sixth ruler, Inca Roca that they called themselves Inca. The eighth Inca. Huiracoch conquered most of Urubamba Valley, in the fifteenth century. During an attack on the enemy Chanka his son Pachacutec Yupanqui seized power. Pachacutec was called ‘he who remakes the world’. He recorded the history of his people.

               His son Tupac Yupanqui was a patron of art and science. He led the empire to its golden age, and extended his rule as far as Chile and Ecuador. His son Huayana Capac conquered parts of Colombia.

               The pharaohs of Egypt conquered Kush around 2000 BC. Kush, also known as Nubia, is present day Sudan. Kush freed itself from the clutches of the pharaohs during the period of the Hyskos from 1650 to 1540 BC. However, Kush again came under Egyptian rule from 1540 BC. An Egyptian viceroy governed Kush from Aniba. Nubians were skilled fighters and were highly valued as soldiers in the Egyptian army. The Kushites cashed in on the weakening of Egyptian authority, and set up their own kingdom in Napata. The Kushite rulers turned the tables on Egypt. From the reign of King Piye, in the eighth century, Egypt came under their rule. They were known as ‘Black Pharaohs’.

               During the reign of Tahrqa, they were driven out of Egypt by the Assyrians, and they withdrew into Napata. King Ergamenes I founded a new dynasty between 270 and 260 BC. Meroe was the capital of the new kingdom. The kingdom of Meroe experienced its golden age under King Natakamani. The Romans razed Napata to the ground in AD 279. However, the kings and queens of Napata bounced back from defeat, and beat back the Romans. A Nubian nomadic people called Blemmyes took over the rule of Meroe in 250 AD. Meroe was destroyed around AD 350. 

                    The wise King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba had a son called Menelik I, according to Ethiopian legend. King Menelik I was the first king of Ethiopia. Ethiopia is one of the world’s oldest states. Axum was the capital. Ethiopia’s power rose again under the Zagwe dynasty. Roha was made the new capital. The emperors bore the title of ‘Negus Negest’ meaning ‘king of kings’. Yekuno Amlak reestablished the rule of the Solomonic dynasty.

                    After 1493, the Portuguese were allowed into the country. The Portuguese helped the Emperor Claudius to stop the expanding kingdom of Adal. However, the Portuguese were thrown out of Ethiopia by Emperor Fasilidas in the seventeenth century. 

               Ghana was the first West African kingdom. It was formed around 750 BC. Mali, then known as Audaghost and Mauritania known as Kumbi Saleh were both part of the Ghana kingdom. Later, the Berber dynasty from the coast of Senegal conquered Audaghost and Kumbi Saleh in the eleventh century. Ghana fell.

               The Mandinka tribes of Mali made themselves independent. They set up their own kingdom with Niani as its capital. Sundiata Keita, the founder of the kingdom took the title of ‘Mansa’ or king of kings. The Kingdom of Songhai replaced Mali around 1375 AD. The conqueror Sunni Ali occupied Djenne and Timbuktu. In 1591, the kingdom was conquered by the Sultan of Morocco. The Hausa and Banza states rose in the area of present day Nigeria, Niger and Chad. 

               Have you heard of Zimbabwe? Zimbabwe means ‘great stone house’. The centre of the early culture in Southern Africa is located in the present day countries of Zimbabwe and Mozambique. From the second century, this area became home to farmers called Shona.

              The fifteenth century saw the birth of a new empire in Zimbabwe. The empire was called Munhumutapa after its first ruler’s name. Shortly after 1480, the Munhumutapa Empire fell apart. Changa, a governor of the Munhumutapa Empire founded the empire of Changamire. It remained a political power until 1834.

               The Aborigines are the original inhabitants of Australia. They lived as hunters and gatherers in clans of 20 to 30 individuals. The men used boomerangs which came back to hand when thrown, and long spears. The women used clubs for hunting small animals. They also gathered berries, tubers, roots, as well as insects.

               Aborigines wore little clothing, and built simple huts. Their clans are based on ‘skin group’. All the father’s brothers are called fathers, and all the mother’s sisters are also called mothers. Their children are regarded as brothers and sisters. All of them belonged to one skin group. Every tribe had four to eight skin groups. Marriage within a skin group was not permitted. 

            Oceania is a world of islands. Over 7500 island and island groups make up Oceania. Oceania is subdivided into three groups – Polynesia which includes New Zealand, Hawaii, and Samoa, Melanesia which includes New Guinea and Micronesia, which includes Nauru. The islands of Oceania share many common features when it comes to language, religion, and the structure of society. Originally, Oceania was a society of farmers called manahune. However they were lorded over by the aristocrats or ariki.

            Expert boat builders enjoyed a special status in Oceania. Canoes of different kinds were made. The canoes were often decorated with richly carved wooden structures. Navigating between sharp rocks without a compass or a map called for great skill.

            Knowledge of sailing was passed down generations by word of mouth. They also built ocean going war vessels. These ships could carry up to 200 people. 

               An astonishing sight met the eyes of the Europeans who first explored Easter  Island – hundreds of gigantic stone figures with oversized heads. They remain a mystery. They may represent respected ancestors, or important nobles. These figures are called moai. Originally, more than 1000 moai stood on Easter Island. Only 638 remain today. Easter Island is a Southeast Pacific island. The Rapa Nui culture made the moai. However, by the time the Europeans first set foot on Easter Island, the Rapa Nui culture had died out mysteriously.

               The tribes of Rapa Nui had a language in pictures called Rongorongo.

               Carved on the steep slope of the volcano Rano Kau is the birdman. The bird man has characters of both man and the frigate bird. The birdman cult became important only in the later years of the island history. Make-Make was the creator god of the birdman cult. The younger men of the birdman cult took part in a competition every year. They plunged from the cliffs, and swam to the rocky island of Motu Nui to fetch the egg of a sooty tern. The one who returned first with an unbroken egg became birdman for a year. 

               The sun goddess Amaterasu is the most important of Japan’s deities. The Japanese believe that, Amaterasu sent her grandson Nnigi no Mikoto down to the Earth. His great grandson is believed to be the Emperor Jimmu Tenno, the first emperor of Japan. The emperors of Japan are known as tenno. They are direct descendants of Jimmu. Japanese emperors are god-emperors. To this day, the Japanese emperor performs many ritual duties and rites.

               Shinto or the way of the Gods is the Japanese natural religion. The most important Shinto shrine is the shrine to the sun goddess at Ise. Kojiki and Nihongi are the 7th century books that throw light on Japanese gods. 

               The period between 552 and 710 AD is known as the Asuka period. In the sixth century, Empress Suiko appointed her son in law Prince Shotoku, as the regent to the empire. He was an energetic man who made Buddhism the state religion. He also wrote the ‘seventeen articles’, the first political constitution of Japan.

               In 710 AD, Empress Gemmei made Nara the imperial capital. In the Nara period, peasants were forced to supply labour. Ambitious Buddhists monks interfered in politics. This period extended to 794 AD. 

               The Pyu was the early advanced civilization of Burma. The Pyu were organized into 18 city states. The Burmese founded the Kingdom of Pagan in the Irrawaddy Valley. Their King Anawratha conquered the Mon Kingdom in 1058 AD. In the 13th century, Pagan was sacked by the troops of Kublai Khan. This gave the chance for the Mons to regain their independence. The Mon had migrated to Eastern Burma and Thailand from India and Burma.

               The state of Dvaravati in Thailand, between the 6th and the 11th centuries, was the leading Mon kingdom. Another Mon kingdom rose in 573 AD. From the 10th century onwards, the Mon kingdoms were pushed back, or defeated by Pagan and the Khmer. The Mon of Northern Thailand lived in a kingdom centred around Lamphun. They were defeated by the Thai king, Mangrai in 1283. 

            According to legend, the Vietnamese people descended from the dragon king Lac long Quan and the immortal fairy, Au Co. They had a hundred children. The eldest became the first of the Hung kings. The people of the time were known as Lac Viet. In the 3rd century BC, a group of people migrated to Vietnam from South China. They were known as the Au Viet. They mixed with the Lac Viet. The kingdom of Au Lac was established in 210 BC. China took control of Vietnam from the 2nd century AD. Vietnam became free from China only in 960 AD. King Ly Cong Uan founded the kingdom of Dai Viet in 1009 under the Ly dynasty. His successor, Ly Phat Ma issued the law code known as Minh-Dao or the clear way.

            The Ly dynasty was followed by the Tran dynasty which ruled between 1225 and1400. Together with the Cham, they fought off the invasion of Kublai Khan from China. However, the north of Vietnam came under Chinese rule from 1407. Champa was the kingdom of the Chams. The Chams were Central and South Vietnamese rice farmers. Champa made itself independent in the 4th century. King Indravarman II made Indrapura the new capital, in the 9th century. Champa was occupied by the Khmers in the 10th century and the Dai Viet in the 11th century. In 1167, Champa gained independence with Chinese help. 

               In 802 AD, the Angkor period started. The Angkor kingdom of the Khmer was one of the most important kingdoms in the whole of Asia. Angkor lies in Cambodia. Suryavarman II an Angkor king made the land world famous by building the temple Angkor Wat. This is a temple for Vishnu and is a UNESCO world heritage site.

               This rectangular temple is one and half kilometres long, and is surrounded by a wide moat. Five towers in the shape of lotus buds surround the main temple. These towers represent Meru, the world-mountain. Scenes from the Ramayana and the life of Krishna are carved on the walls of the temple. The sandstone buildings are almost completely covered with ornamentation. Around two million people visit Angkor Wat every year. 

               Do you know that the original people of North America are called Indians? Now, don’t get confused. The Indians of North America have no connection with the people of India. The Clovis culture is the oldest Indian culture of North America. This culture got its name from the spear points found near Clovis. Clovis lies in present day New Mexico. The culture existed from 11600 – 10700 BC. The Folsom culture followed. It was born in 10700 BC, and died out in 8500 BC.

               Several regional cultures then came into being. The Hopewell culture is the most notable of these. It flourished in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys between 300 BC and 500 AD. The Indians of North America were divided into several hundred tribes and cultural groups. They worshipped nature. After hunting, they asked the forgiveness from nature.

               Around 1000 BC, the Olmecs were joined in Northern Mexico by the warlike Huastec people. However, they were defeated by the Aztecs, and later by the Spanish. They left behind only a few circular temples and palaces. The Zapotecs established themselves about 1000 BC. They made the Olmec city of Monte Alban, the capital.

               After 1000AD, they were driven off by the Mixtecs to the Mitla area. Tilantongo in Southern Mexico was their capital. They displaced the Zapotecs, and erected pyramids and magnificent tombs. They were conquered by the Spanish in the 16th century. Between 720 AD and 1150 AD, the Toltecs ruled Central Mexico. Their priest-king Quetzlcoatl led his people to Mixtec and Mayan regions, but he was driven away. Later, the Aztecs worshipped him as chief god and founder hero. 

               The first advanced civilization of South America is the Chavin civilization, which flourished between 900 and 100 BC. It is named after its centre of Chavin de Huantar in Northern Peru. The Chavin civilization built pyramids and temples. The Chavin civilization was followed by the Moche culture. The coast of Peru was the home of this culture. Fishing, agriculture, and Llama breeding made this culture a rich one. The tomb of a nobleman called Lord of Sipan was discovered.

               Southern Peru boasted of the Paracas culture. The culture extended from 1000 to 200 BC. Bottle shaped tombs and finely worked ceramics were features of this culture. They mummified dead bodies and bound them together into ‘mummy bundles’. They also drilled holes in the skull for medical or religious purposes. The Paracas was followed by the Nazca culture which dominated between 370 BC and 450 AD. Tattooed mummies have been found from their tombs. They carved huge pictures on the ground of the Pampa or desert. These pictures are known as geoglyphs. The meaning of the geoglyphs remains a mystery to this day.

               The Mayans lived in the area covering present-day Southern Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador. Descendants of the Maya still live there today. Theirs was the longest lasting advanced culture in Latin America. The Mayans show the influence of the Olmecs. The Mayan culture is divided into the pre classic period between 300 BC and 250 AD, the Classic from 250 -900 AD and the Post classic from 900 to 1511 AD.

               The Mayans grew corns, beans, tomatoes, cotton and cocoa. Limestone was used for building and for obtaining lime, mortar and cement. Mayan cities were often at war. They fought with spears, blowpipes, clubs and knives. The Mayans had a highly developed language of pictures and symbols. Chaac, the God of rain, Huracan, the god of the wind and the storm and the sun god Itzama were their important gods. 

                    The pyramids and temples in the Mayan centre of Tikal are decorated with images and text. These retell stories of wars and other important events. Tikal lies north of Gautemala. Yaxchilan which lies in present day Mexico was another important Mayan centre. There is a 19 kilometre chain of stone slabs around the Mayan city of Copan. His successor Smoke Squirrel built Palenque is a Mayan centre that lies south of Mexico. 

               The Aztecs saw an eagle sitting on prickly pear cactus by the side of a lake. The eagle was eating a snake. The Aztecs took this as a sign to make it their new capital. Thus, Tenochtitlan was born. After 1473, Tenochtitlan was merged with Tlatelolco to form a twin city. Four large districts and several small ones made up the city. Two pyramids stood in the middle of the city. The pyramids were built for the gods Tlaloc and Huitzilopochtli. The palaces of the rulers stood near the temple district.

               The Aztecs were under the thumb of the mighty Tepanecs of the Azcapotzalco Empire. King Itzlcoatl shook off the rule of the Tepanec in the fifteenth century. He united Tenochtitlan, Texoco and the new Tepanec centre of Tlacopan under a single rule. His nephew Moctezuma I followed in his footsteps. He conquered the region of Chalco or present day Mexico City and even territories as far as the Gulf Coast. His successors conquered the neighbouring state of Tlatelolco. The image of the eagle eating a snake has become part of the emblem of Mexico. 

               The Aztec society was divided into nobles, peasants, merchants, and slaves. The Great Speaker or the king ruled over the Aztecs. The Aztecs cultivated different types of grain, beans, and pumpkins. Aztec artisans were highly skilled. Wars were frequent. Outstanding warriors became members of rival societies.

               The Aztecs adopted several gods from the Toltecs. Huitzilopochtli, the sun god was believed to be the ancestor of the Aztecs. The god Tlaloc sent rain, as well as diseases. Quetzalcoatl was the creator. Gods fought among themselves. Humans were sacrificed to gain the favour of the gods. 

               Like the Romans, the Incas had an amazing ability to build roads and fortresses. They had a well defined state structure, and division of labour. Legend has it that Manco Capac; the first Inca ruler was the son of the creator God Viracocha. He came to Earth on a sun island in Lake Titicaca. The ruler known as the Sapa Inca was carried in a sedan chair. The taxes were paid by the peasants.

               The Incas counted by putting knots on strings. Knotted strings were known as quipu. The Incas buried gold in their tombs. 

               The Indus Valley Civilization was the largest of the ancient civilizations. As the name suggests, the civilization bloomed on the banks of the Indus River and its tributaries. It included most of present day Pakistan, and extended up to the Indian states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab.

               This civilization was amazingly advanced. The cities were defended by walls and forts. Trade flourished. The civilization mastered the craft of making copper, bronze, lead and tin. They had a highly developed sense of hygiene. Mohenjo-Daro alone had over 600 wells and sewers. They even had a language of symbols called the Indus Valley script. This civilization began around 2600 BC, and died out by 1900 BC. According to some historians, Indus Valley Civilization is called as Dravidian because of language and culture. 

                Did you know that some of the cities of the Indus Valley had between 35000 and 40000 people living in them? A vast number of settlements were built on the banks of the Indus River and surrounding areas. These settlements cover a remarkable region, almost 1.3 million square kilometres of land. The most important cities were Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Chanhudaro, Kalibangan, Banawali, Lothal, Dholavira, Sutkagendor, and Surkotada.

                These cities were well planned, and solidly built of brick and stone. They had drainage systems, water storage systems, as well as systems for weights and trade. The people were craftsmen, traders, soldiers, and administrators. The city people got their grain and food from the villages. When the villages became too big, they needed a strong administration. They also began to produce excess grain, so that the people could devote themselves to other activities besides farming. This led to the growth of city civilizations. 

                    The Harappans knew how to write, and over 2,000 stone seals have been found in the Indus Valley. These seals were small tablets which left an impression when pressed into a soft substance like clay. They were quadrangular in shape. These seals are some form writing, but unfortunately they have not been deciphered yet. The Harappan writing consists of short strings of symbols. Some say that each symbol represents a picture or idea; others say it represents a sound. The fact, however, is that no one has actually been able to understand or read the writing of the Harappans. 

               The cities of Harappa were well planned, and even had covered drains. Large areas were built with bricks of the same size and weight. They used kilns to make bricks, and used burnt bricks in domestic and public buildings.

               The city streets were straight and broad. They were paved and laid at right angles to each other. The houses were protected against noise, odours, and thieves. Houses faced streets, and were at least two storeys high. They had brick staircases leading to the upper levels and the roof. Life was centred on an enclosed courtyard, and there was a balcony over the courtyard. Each house had its own well, and one even had a large bathtub! 

               The Harappan civilization finally declined between 2000 and 1800 BC. We cannot really pinpoint one single reason. Climate changes may have played a role, since the Earth was becoming warmer during this time. The land became drier, and water ran short for cultivation.

               It is also thought that earthquakes or fires may have destroyed many cities. The city of Mohenjo-Daro shows evidence of having been destroyed by fire. Other scholars feel that the population was wiped out by an epidemic or disease. It is also likely that the area became too large to be effectively controlled, encouraging attacks by outsiders. Some believe that the nomadic Aryans invaded India around 1500 BC, and destroyed the Indus Valley civilization, bringing to an end the most brilliant civilization of the ancient world. Many modern historians say the theories of Aryan invasion are a myth. 

               Yu the Great founded the first Chinese dynasty, Xia. They ruled in the lower reaches of the Yellow River between 2200 and 1570 BC. The dynasty is famous for its dam building and the working of bronze. The Shang dynasty succeeded the Xia. The city of Ao was its capital. The Shang was famous for silk weaving, agriculture, and the use of wheels with spokes. The basics of the Chinese language were developed in this period. They heated bones and turtle shells and read their future from the cracks that emerged!

               The Zhou overthrew the Shang. They distributed large landholdings to family members and supporters. Thus they divided people into landlords and peasants. Thereby they laid the foundations of the future feudal state. 

                Warlords and regional rulers rose during the period between 476 and 221 BC. They waged bitter wars. So, this period is known as the period of the warring states. Wandering thinkers and teachers of wisdom offered their services to the new lords. Hence, this period is also known as the ‘Period of the Hundred Schools of Thought’. Taoism arose at this time. The principles of Taoism are laid down in Tao Te Ching or The Book of the Way and the Power of the Way. Taoists lead a peaceful life in harmony with nature. Confucianism was the other major philosophy. Confucianism called for a virtuous life.

                Mohism and the Agriculture School too exercised some influence. Mohism, founded by Mo Di, preached universal love of mankind. The Agriculture School gave supreme importance to agriculture. They even asked the rulers to work in the fields! These new schools of thought were based on the ancient Chinese ideas of harmony. Ancient Chinese thinkers believed that all development was due to the interplay of the yin and the yang. The yin was the warm and active male force, while the yang was the cold and accepting female force. 

                    Qin Shih Huang di was the first emperor of China. King Zhen of the Qin state defeated the other six warring states quickly and cruelly. King Zhen took the name of Qin Shih Huang di, and became the first emperor of China. He ruled for 11 years, and achieved astonishing things.

                   He ruled with the aid of a powerful army and loyal officials. He laid down standards for writing, money, weights and measures, clothes, and even hairstyles. Hundreds of thousands of labourers were forcibly put to work, to control the flow of rivers and to lay 6800 kilometres of roads. He constructed the beginnings of the Great Wall of China, and his huge tomb. Qin Shih Huang di burned a large portion of the ancient philosophical writings.

               Rulers often rely on religion. The great Han emperor Wu-Di made Confucianism the state religion. He realized that Confucianism would foster Han rule. Kong Zi or Confucius who lived between 551 and 479 BC was the founder of Confucianism. Confucianism called for a life of virtue. Ren or humanity, yi or righteousness, li or ritual, zhi or knowledge and xin or integrity are the pillars of Confucianism. People were asked to be polite and respectful to one another. They were expected to serve their ruler. Emperor Wu-Di made knowledge of Confucianism compulsory for the civil services examination of his time. 

               The first emperor of the famous Han dynasty was a peasant. Lui Chi led the peasant revolt that overthrew the Qin dynasty in the second century. He was given the name of Kao-tsu, after his death. The Han emperors annexed Korea in the North, and Vietnam in the South. They had to keep at bay the Hsiung-nu, the wandering horsemen of Central Asia. They established a stable empire.

               The stable rule of the Han paved way for trade, along the famous Silk Road. Paper was invented in the Han period. The first suspension bridge was built, and Chinese medicine was developed. Over 17 million words were added to the law. The Han nobles led a life of luxury. The largest ethnic group in present day China is named after the Han.

               Japan is a group of islands. Man has lived on these islands, since about 100,000 BC. Since the New Stone Age, Japan has been colonized by several groups of people from Korea. The bearded Ainu, the Karafuto and the Kurils are the more important groups. Islands are difficult to reach. Therefore, Japanese culture developed without outside influence.

               The Jomon period is the period between 10,000 and 300 BC. It is named after its ceramics. The Yayoi period extended from 300 BC to 300 AD. This period was known for its high quality ceramics. Larger communities were the norm. Bronze and iron working, as well as wet field rice cultivation took off. The first trading states emerged. The Kofun period, extended from 300 to 710 AD, and was named for its graves. Close contacts existed with Korea and China. They tried to invade Japan, but they succeeded only in bringing house building techniques, medical knowledge, and Buddhist literature to Japan. 

               Around AD 1205, a tribal leader emerged in Mongolia. His name was Temujin. He united the many different tribes and established written laws, known as the yasa that guided the actions of Mongolians throughout their entire empire. Temujin also established a powerful army. As a result of his military successes, people began to refer him as ‘Khan’ or king- and in time, he became known as Genghis Khan.

               Through cunning diplomacy, spiritual mission, and brute force, Genghis Khan unified the Mongols, and then set out east and west to swiftly conquer vast parts of Asia. By 1280, Mongol rule stretched from China’s Yellow Sea to the Mediterranean Sea, a total of 12 million square miles. Incredibly, in a span of just 25 years, Genghis Khan’s horse-men conquered a greater population than the Romans did in four centuries.

               After his death, the kingdom was divided among his four sons. Later, Khan’s grandson successfully led the Mongol army.

               The Mongols were a group of nomads, who came from North Central Asia. Their name comes from their homeland, Mongolia. In Mongolia, they lived in tents, which allowed them to migrate from place to place in search of the best hunting grounds, and the most fertile soil.

               The Mongols were traders and herdsmen. They perfected the methods of warfare that enabled them to conquer more and more territories. Their army was arranged by clans, and operated in flexible units that allowed the Mongols to chase their enemies for days before wiping them out completely.

               By the late AD 1200’s, the Mongols had conquered more territory than any other nation in history. Their Empire stretched almost from sea to sea on Asia. Because almost all of Asia was being ruled by a single government, there was great peace in the land. However, the Mongol Empire was short lived. Local leaders became more powerful and by 1300, the empire had divided into smaller independent states.

            The Khazar people were an unusual phenomenon for medieval times. Surrounded by savage and nomadic tribes, they had a structured government, vast and prosperous trading, and a permanent army. At a time, when great fanaticism and deep ignorance ruled over Western Europe, the Khazar state was famous for its justice and tolerance.

            The Khazars were originally from Central Asia. From about 550 to 630, the Khazars were part of the Western Turkish Empire. When the Western Turkish Empire was broken up as a result of civil wars in the middle of the 7th century, the Khazars successfully asserted their independence. At its maximum extent, the independent country of Khazaria included the geographic regions of Southern Russia, Northern Caucasus, Eastern Ukraine, Crimea, Western Kazakhstan, and North-western Uzbekistan. Khazaria acted as a buffer state between the Islamic world and the Christian world.

              The history of Khazaria presents us with a fascinating example of how Jewish life flourished in the Middle Ages. At a time when Jews were persecuted throughout Christian Europe, the kingdom of Khazaria was a beacon of hope. Jews were able to flourish in Khazaria because of the tolerance of the Khazar rulers, who invited Byzantine and Persian Jewish refugees to settle in their country. Due to the influence of these refugees, the Khazars found the Jewish religion to be appealing, and adopted Judaism in large numbers. 

               The beginnings of the Hsiung-nu go back to times immemorial. It is reported that the Hsiung-nu had been known under a number of different names in Ancient China since antiquity. They were a people of vaguely Turkic stock, and were nomadic pastoralists living North of China. They often raided China of the Han dynasty, providing a major security threat for centuries. In fact, the Chinese began constructing the Great Wall because of the presence of the Hsiung-nu.

               Mao-Tun was a ruthless Hsiung-nu ruler who killed his own father, eliminated all his rivals, and perfected the art of horseback archery. Mao-Tun soon attracted a band of loyal followers whom he trained to obey his every command without question. The Hsiung-nu, under Mao-Tun, achieved their biggest successes at this time. However, during the subsequent wars that lasted for a couple of decades, a highly organized China showed itself to be superior. Slowly, the Hsiung-nu lost their position at the southern edge of the Gobi desert, and China secured control over the commercial routes to the west known as the famous ‘Silk Road’. Later on in history, they became the Huns, who transferred their attentions towards Europe, and unleashed the first migration of nations. 

               The Huns were an aggressive, dangerous, conquering tribe who probably came from Western China. The Chinese successfully defended themselves against the Huns in the 3rd century. The Huns then divided into two groups. The smaller group went towards India. But, the main group went north-west to Siberia. By 350 AD, the Huns were already crossing the steps toward Europe. In Europe, the Huns defeated many groups, and finally settled in the Hungarian area. They attacked the Eastern Roman Empire in 430 AD.

               The Huns were divided into the Hephthalites or White Huns, who invaded the Sassanid empire of Persia, and the Black Huns, who invaded Europe. The Hephthalites have fairer complexions than the Black Huns. Whether black or white, the Huns terrorized much of Asia and Europe from the 3rd through 5th centuries.

               The Avars were a Mongolian people. In the fourth century, they were one of many tribes to trouble the northern borders of the Chinese Empire. Little is known about the Avars in the period of their greatest power. Their base was situated somewhere near present-day Belgrade. By the end of the sixth century, their empire stretched from the River Volga to the Baltic Sea, and evidence suggests that they remained powerful well into the eighth century. They fought against the Byzantine Empire, and they reached as far as Constantinople, but could not take the city. Between 791 and 803, their kingdom was destroyed by the Franks and the Bulgarians, and the Avars merged with the Slavs.

               The Bulgars or proto Bulgarians, were a herding people who fought their way westward from Asia, raiding for plunder in Constantinople’s empire in the Balkans during the rule of Justinian I, and then retreating. During the rule of the Byzantine emperor Constantine V, the Arab danger had abated, and Constantine felt free to attack the Bulgarians. However, by then, the Bulgarians had become powerful, and were able to withstand his attacks. Around 917 AD, Bulgaria became the centre of the Christian Slavic world. However, in 1018, the Byzantines attacked again, and destroyed the first Great Bulgarian Empire. 

               The Scythians were a large group of loosely connected people who lived in Russia, and also further south around the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. By 600 BC, they took over some of the land to their south in modern Turkey for a while. They were remarkable for their fighting ability and civilization. They developed a class of wealthy aristocrats, who left elaborate graves filled with richly worked articles of gold and other precious materials. The Scythians worked in a wide variety of materials, including wood, leather, bone, appliqué felts, bronze, iron, silver, gold, and electrum.

              The Scythians were feared and admired for their prowess in war and, in particular, for their horsemanship. They were among the earliest people to master the art of riding, and their mobility astonished their neighbours.

               The Cimmerians were a nomadic tribe, living in Asia Minor in the seventh century BC. A few of them moved into the Crimea where they lingered on long enough to give that Black Sea peninsula its name. Most of them however moved south to the Middle East. The Cimmerians are credited with being the people who first domesticated the horse as symbols of wealth and status. However, they used it as a draft animal for about 500 years before they learned to ride it, going into battle on war chariots drawn by horses. 

               The Slavs first moved to Europe from West Asia around 2000 BC. They settled in the north -probably in modern Poland. About 100 or 200 AD, the Slavs crossed the Carpathian Mountains into present Slovakia and Romania. They crossed Danube, in the 500 AD, and settled in Greece.

               The Slavs were later attacked and defeated by Charlemagne. Charlemagne captured so many Slavs, and brought them back to France as slaves that their name has become the French – and English – word for slave. Most Slavs continued to live in Eastern Europe, where they gradually divided into three groups-the Polish Slavs, the Balkan Slavs, and the Russian Slavs. All three groups converted to Christianity before 1300 AD.

               Around 1000 AD, some of the Vikings who had been raiding France, got permission from the French king to settle down and live in France. They were called the Normans, which are short for North-Men, because they came from the North. The part of France where they lived is called Normandy today. In 1066, William, Duke of Normandy, put together a huge army of 6000 men, along with several hundred ships. He invaded England, and at the Battle of Hastings, defeated another rival for the throne. William was crowned King of England.

               William, the Conqueror, took all the land away from the English church officials and nobles, and gave it all to his Norman friends. He also wanted local officials, under his control, in all the towns. So, he created a new office called a sheriff. A sheriff’s job was to collect taxes. William set up a council of Norman nobles and bishops. He called it the Great Council. By the 1200’s, the Great Council was called parliament… and it is called parliament to this day. 

               The Vikings came from the three countries of Scandinavia-Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. They came to Europe between 700 and 1100 AD. During this period, many Vikings left Scandinavia and travelled to other countries, such as Britain and Ireland. Some went to fight and steal treasure. Others settled down as farmers.

               The Vikings travelled in medium-sized sailing ships that were large enough to sail in the open sea, but small enough to navigate through the rivers of Europe. Norwegian Vikings sailed west across the Atlantic Ocean to Iceland and Greenland. About AD 1000, Vikings sailed to North America, and started a settlement there too. Danish Vikings went to France and founded Normandy. Danish Vikings also sailed south around Spain, and into the Mediterranean Sea. Swedish Vikings roamed along rivers into Russia. Viking traders could be found as far east as Constantinople, where they met people from Africa, Arabia and Asia.

The Vikings were great sailors and traders, but they were also fierce warriors, attacking and robbing villages all around the coasts of Europe. Is it any wonder that for nearly 300 years, the Vikings sparked fear in their enemies?

               Charlemagne was one of Europe’s most successful monarchs. He was crowned by the Pope on Christmas Day, 800 AD. One of the most important things Charlemagne did for his people was to introduce a jury system, which was trial by jury, instead of by ordeal. He turned his castle into a learning centre – inviting scholars from all over the world to take up residence there. He used his scholars to create illustrated manuscript that preserved knowledge. Charlemagne ruled his vast empire by using local officials called counts to help him. At least once a year, he paid surprise visits to his various counts to make sure they were managing things fairly and effectively. Charlemagne introduced a payment system for taxes using silver coins. He standardized the value of each coin.

               At the same time, Charlemagne also greatly expanded the size of his kingdom. He conquered France down to the Pyrenees Mountains, and even into Northern Spain. He crossed the Rhine River, and conquered Germany, Switzerland and Austria, even modern Hungary. To the north, he conquered Belgium. He also conquered the Lombards in Northern Italy. Charlemagne’s conquests, as well as his reforms and sponsorship of education and science all contributed to him being called ‘The Father of Europe’ by later generations.

               The Franks were also a Germanic tribe that had been living for some time in Northern Germany. The early Franks were, in fact, a loose confederation of tribes who shared a similar culture. Because they had not come into contact with Rome, they were still worshipping the old gods, and had not converted to Christianity.

               The Franks first settled in Northern France and Belgium, but around 490 AD, the Franks became Christians under a new, young, and ambitious king named Clovis, They began to fight their way south. Clovis established the independent development of the Frankish Church, and encouraged the growth of churches and abbeys as centres of learning.

               The Franks were legendary fighters. They fought with the Visigoths in 509 AD, and won. The Franks now took over all of France, except Burgundy. One of the greatest of their kings was Charlemagne. Using the strength and loyalty of his army, combined with his own leadership abilities, Charlemagne soon defeated most of the other barbarian tribes in Western Europe. He expanded the Frankish Empire to include Germany, all of France, most of Italy, and even sections of northern Spain.

               The name ‘Frank’ is closely related to the word that means ‘fierce’ or ‘free’ in the Frankish language- and the Franks was indeed a fearless people! 

               Have you heard the word ‘vandalism’? Vandalism is any kind of damage done on purpose, for no good reason. The word comes from ‘vandals’ which is the name of Germanic tribes that had a reputation for looting and sacking wherever they went. These tribes originally settled in Hungary, Romania, and Silesia. They were forced westward by the Huns and moved to Spain, and later to North Africa. They conquered Carthage in 439. Later, the Vandal leader, Geiseric built a powerful fleet and sailed to Italy to sack Rome. Eventually, the Vandals were defeated by the rulers of the Byzantine Empire.

               The Lombards were also a Germanic tribe. Their origin was in Southern Sweden. They worked their way down into Italy by the 6th century. There, they established permanent German rule in Italy, but became Italians in the process and gave their name to the Northern Italian region of Lombardia.

               The Lombards were always in conflict with the Popes, and had to continually defend themselves against attacks from the Franks, who were supporters of the Pope and the Byzantines. The Lombards were finally brought under the control of the Franks, and then the Normans. It is thought that their name refers either to their long beards, or to their long handled battle axes! 

            The Visigoths and Ostrogoths were originally Goths, a Germanic tribe who lived in what is now Scandinavia. In the third century AD, the Goths invaded the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire, and during the fourth century, they broke into two groups. Those living north of the present-day Danube River became known as the Visigoths, while those living farther east, in present-day Ukraine, were called the Ostrogoths.

            When the Huns from Central Asia attacked the Goths, many of the Visigoths escaped into an eastern Roman province. Rebelling against the Roman rulers, the Visigoths destroyed the Roman army at a battle in Adrianople, and killed Valens, the emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire.

            In 410, they destroyed the city of Rome. The Ostrogoths, on the other hand, were conquered by the Huns. After Attila, king of the Huns, died in 453, the Ostrogoths regained their independence. Most of them were at that time living in what is now Hungary.

            The Ostrogoths became a military power under King Theodoric. In 488, with encouragement from Zeno, the eastern emperor at Constantinople, Theodoric invaded Italy. However, after Justinian became emperor, he crushed the Ostrogoths in a long war, and the Ostrogoths soon lost their separate identity in Italy. 

               The origin of the Germanic peoples was in the fog shrouded forests on the North and Baltic Sea shores of Europe. The Germanic peoples are descended from explorers, who settled in extreme Northern Europe, and spoke a language that was a fusion of an Indo-European tongue, and the language of the Northern Megalithic culture. These two cultures, the Indo-European, and Northern Megalithic met and fused in Northern Europe sometime around 1600 BC.

               The Germanic tribes lived mostly by hunting, gathering wild herbs, cultivating crops, and raising cattle. They lived in small scattered villages and large farmsteads. Their religion glorified war, and their paradise – Valahalla was depicted as a place of endless feasts and contests. The family and clan were the cornerstone of their society, and the head of the house ruled over not only his own family, but also many servants and slaves.

               Germanic tribal migrations started in the mid 4th century. We can see that these migrations were a large contributory factor leading to the break-up of the Roman Empire. These groups all developed separate dialects, the basis for the differences among Germanic languages down to the present day.

               The ancient Germanic people made a considerable impact on the development of ancient Europe, particularly through their interactions with the Roman Empire. Today, the descendants of the ancient Germanics or Teutons are mainly to be found in Germany, Austria, and German speaking Switzerland, as well as in England, the Netherlands, Flemish and German speaking Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, Norway and Iceland. 

               The origin of the Celts remains shrouded in mystery, but what is known is that they spread throughout Europe because of their large scale migrations. Around 900 BC, the Celts began to arrive in the British Isles, where they lived in settlements as artisans and smiths, and mingled with the local people. After 400 BC, because of shortages in food and available land, some Celts migrated to Germany, Austria, and Italy. In 51 BC, Julius Caesar conquered Gaul, where the Celts had settled, and divided it into Roman provinces. This resulted in a gradual mingling of the Roman and Celtic cultures.

               The Celts gradually migrated to Transylvania and Dalmatia and intermingled with the native people. They pushed into Greece as far as Delphi, and large groups went as far as Asia Minor. One band settled in Turkey, and named this area Galatia.

               The Celts first burst into recorded history in the writings of the ancient Greeks and Romans in about 500 B.C, but they were by then, already a mighty and widespread people. 

               The Celts were proud and honourable people, who colonized the whole of Central Europe including Britain, and spoke a different language. The study of the Celts is important because, they are hailed as the fathers of Europe, and their culture spread from Galicia in Spain, to Turkey. Many place names in Europe are derived from the Celtic inhabitants, and many of the roads once attributed to the Romans are now recognized as having been created by the Celts.

               The Celtic tribes lived in scattered villages. Most Celts lived in farming communities surrounded by a bank with wooden fencing and a ditch to keep out intruders and wild animals. The Celts lived in round houses with thatched roofs of straw or heather. Clothes were made from wool, and dyed with natural vegetable dyes. The Celts also loved to wear jewellery made from bronze, gold, tin, silver, coral and enamel. They ate whatever food they could grow or hunt.

               The Celts were great warriors. Many Celts went into battle unprotected by helmets or armour. They often fought naked – and it’s believed that women fought as well. They believed in many gods and goddesses, and priests called druids.

               In fact, there are still areas where the Celtic languages remain widely spoken and these include parts of the British Isles and Brittany in France.

                 Constantine was the first Christian Roman emperor. It is said that the night before a battle, he had a dream in which a cross appeared in the sky, and a voice proclaimed ‘Under this sign you will win’. So, he converted to Christianity and his rule saw many changes in the Roman Empire.

                 Constantine lived in the Eastern Empire, and chose Byzantium as his capital, which he renamed Constantinople. Byzantium was located in a perfect position to trade with the east and the west. Rather than send traded goods onto to Rome, Constantine kept most of the goods in his own half of the empire. Moreover, he built Constantinople with the money that he got from Rome. As a result, the western side of the empire became less and less important to the Eastern Roman Empire with its capital in Constantinople. Constantine’s conversion to Christianity also increased the Christian influence among the Romans. 

               Rome is built on seven hills. Ancient Rome was a huge, crowded city, with beautiful temples and public buildings. The rich had gracious homes, each with an entrance atrium, which was the centre of family life. For those who were not quite as rich, there were apartment buildings, while shabby tenements were for the poor.

               The Romans enjoyed going to the public baths, not just to bathe but for socializing. A Roman’s day might start off with a light breakfast. In the early afternoon, the Roman might take a quick trip to the baths. At around 3pm, they would have dinner which was as much of a social event. Some were carried in covered litters, with curtained couches carried on poles by slaves. Even for the poor, life in the city was lively. There was always something going on, like the many religious festivals with entertainment paid for by the rich, and chariot racing. These were free spectacles that all the people could enjoy. 

               During the era of the late Republic, Rome suffered through a reign of terror under the dictator Sulla. When he died, damage had been done to the republican system of government. Violence and uncertainty allowed a new political alliance to arise- that of the first triumvirate. Triumvirate means ‘three men’ and refers to a group of three men who hold political power, regardless of whether or not the trio has been elected. 

               The first triumvirate consisted of Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Marcus Licinius Crassus. They divided up the Roman provinces. Crassus, the capable financier, received Syria. Pompey, the renowned general, got Spain. Caesar, who would soon show he to be a skilled politician, took over Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul and II – lyricum. The triumvirate fell apart in 53 BC, when a Parthian army attacked Rome and killed Crassus. Meanwhile, Caesar developed the Roman Empire. In a struggle for power with the Senate, Caesar emerged the winner.

               After Caesar’s death, the second triumvirate was established in 43 BC. It consisted of Octavian, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, and Mark Antony. The second triumvirate ended when Antony became involved with Cleopatra-Egypt’s pharaoh- and decided to fight Rome. Octavian played a part in defeating Antony’s forces. Once Antony was out of the way, and Lepidus was forced to retire, Octavian was free to become Augustus Caesar.  

               For the first 200 years after it was founded, Rome was a kingdom, ruled by a succession of seven kings. The seventh king, Tarquinius was overthrown in 509 BC, and the Roman Republic was established.

                Under the Republic, two elected consuls led the government. The consul’s most important power was that they controlled the army. They were members of the Senate, which was composed of leaders from the noble families of Rome. Members of the Senate were chosen by the consuls. Once chosen, they served for life.

               There was also an Assembly composed of the common citizens of Rome. It had limited powers. It could vote for, or suggest laws, but the Senate could block their decisions. The Assembly could vote to declare war, but the Senate could override them. However, the Assembly had one power that was very impressive – it was the Assembly who voted each year on which two members of the Senate would serve as consuls. The Roman Republic followed a policy of expansion, and established many provinces. Each province was provided with manpower, taxes, food and other resources. 

             The founding of Rome goes back to the very early days of civilization. According to legend, Rome was founded by the twins, Romulus and Remus, who were the sons of the War God, Mars. An evil uncle took them as babies from their mother, and threw them into the River Tiber to drown. The boys were found by a she-wolf who fed and nurtured them. Then, a shepherd and his wife adopted the boys. Years later, Mars told his twin sons to build a city on the spot where they had been found. The city was Rome.

             Romulus and Remus both wanted to be the only king. They quarrelled, and in a fit of rage, Romulus picked up a rock, killed his brother, and made himself the sole ruler. This legend is one of the most famous in the history of the world. The city of Rome was later to become the heart of the Roman Empire. 

               The Etruscans lived in what is modern Tuscany in the area bounded by the Tiber and Arno rivers, the Apennines and the Tyrrhenian Sea. The Etruscan economy was based on agriculture, trade, and mineral resources. The Etruscans learnt a lot from the Greeks and the Phoenicians- things that the Latins, living around Rome didn’t know how to do yet.

               The Etruscans built cities with stone walls. Each autonomous city was originally ruled by a powerful, wealthy king and had a sacred boundary. Etruscan homes were mud-brick, with timber on stone foundations. They built big stone temples and huge statues. They dug canals and ditches to bring water to their fields. They had organized governments with kings. Soon, some of the other people in Italy began to copy the Etruscan ways, and the Etruscans heavily influenced early Rome.

               Ancient Greece was also known as ‘Hellas’ and ‘Hellenism’ was the spreading of the Greek way of life to the rest of the world. The spread of Hellenism embraced nearly all forms of life, like politics, art, philosophy, religion, and science.

               The Hellenistic Age is the period between the conquest of the Persian Empire by Alexander, and the establishment of Roman supremacy. Alexander’s generals divided the huge empire into three main Macedonian kingdoms- Egypt under the Ptylomies, Syria, ruled by the Seleucids, and Macedonia under the Antigonid dynasty. The rulers used their wealth to attract poets, scholars, and artists. The religion of the Hellenistic Age combined Greek gods with Eastern deities. This was a process known as syncretism.

               Impressive scientific innovations were made in Alexandria, where the Greek Eratosthenes computed the circumference of the Earth, Archimedes calculated pi, and Euclid compiled his geometry text.

               In literature, new comedy evolved, and the personal biography became popular. The centre of medical research and development was Alexandria. Researchers used dissections to show the distinction between arteries and nerves. They learned to use the pulse for diagnosis, and saw the heart as a pump with valves. They were even able to control bleeding with tourniquets and surgically remove hernias, bladder stones, and haemorrhoids! 

               Alexander died without any sons old enough to rule, and so his kingdom was split up among his generals. These generals, known as the Diadochi, squabbled amongst themselves over who was the rightful heir to the throne. They engaged in a series of conflicts known as the Wars of the Diadochi. 

               Lysimachus was one of the generals, who conquered Asia Minor, Thrace and later Macedonia, and accumulated vast riches. However, he was later defeated by Seleucus. Seleucus was a young soldier who had risen through the ranks of Alexander’s army. He was the Governor of Babylon, but was forced to flee. He later became an admiral in the navy of Ptolemy I.

               Antigonous was the first of the Diadochi to openly declare him a king. His ambition was to reunite the empire of Alexander by defeating all the other Diadochi rulers. This caused the remaining Diadochi to join together against him. They finally defeated Antigonous.

               In this power struggle, none of the Diadochi, or their successors was ever able to unite Alexander’s Empire. However, they prudently promoted the intermingling of Greeks with the local peoples, leading to a fusion of East with West. This period is known as the Hellenistic Age. 

               The Assyrians became well-known traders, who travelled constantly between Assur and Southern Turkey around 2000 BC. After 1700 BC, the Assyrians were controlled by a people called the Hurrians. When the Hurrian kingdom collapsed about 1360 BC, the Assyrian governor of Assur, whose name was Ash-sur-uballit, saw his chance and began calling himself the King of Assyria. In time, the Assyrians became a military power to be reckoned with. In 1225 BC, the Assyrians conquered and ransacked the city of Babylon. The Assyrian army, which was feared everywhere, started to go on plundering expeditions every spring along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. These plundering expeditions continued more or less every year for hundreds of years.

               By 705 BC, the Assyrians had conquered everything near enough to rule, and even dominated Egypt. Now their kings concentrated more on providing services to the conquered people that would keep them from wanting to revolt. The Assyrian kings now built highways and bridges and water systems, established courts to settle disputes among their subjects, and encouraged scholarship and art with great libraries at their palaces. Yet their empire was built on their military power, which is why they are regarded as the first military power in history. 

                        Nebuchadnezzar was the mighty king of the Babylonian Empire between 604 and 562 BC. He made Babylon  one of the most magnificent of cities. He restored old religious monuments and improved canals, as other Babylonian kings had done, but Nebuchadnezzar is best known for his legendary Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The Hanging Gardens consisted of vaulted terraces, raised one above another that rested upon cube-shaped pillars. The pillars were hollow, and filled with earth to allow huge trees to be planted. Nebuchadnezzar’s building projects also included surrounding his capital city with a double wall 16 kilometres long, with an elaborate entry called the Ishtar Gate. He also built a port on the Persian Gulf. 

               Hammurabi was the ruler, who established the greatness of Babylon, the world’s first metropolis. Hammurabi had succeeded in conquering neighbouring states in Mesopotamia, and in establishing a stable empire. In part, he achieved this stability by means of a set of laws that he drew up. In fact, the most remarkable of his achievements is his code of laws. This code is the earliest-known example of a ruler proclaiming publicly to his people an entire body of laws, arranged in orderly groups, so that all men might read and know what was required of them. The code begins and ends with addresses to the gods. Since the laws were clearly written down, everyone was expected to obey them. Hammurabi stated specifically that the strong should not oppress the weak, and that the widow and orphan should get justice.

               The code was important at the time, because it was the basis for consolidating the rule of law throughout an empire. It is important today, because it reveals the way human rights were beginning to emerge in Babylonia, as Hammurabi sought to protect all classes of Babylonian society. It also shows that many of today’s problems existed in Babylon too.

               The Epic of Gilgamesh is, perhaps, the oldest written story on Earth. It comes to us from Ancient Sumeria, and was originally written on twelve clay tablets in cuneiform script. It is a story about a Sumerian king, Gilgamesh, who seems to have lived in Mesopotamia about 2500 BC.

               The epic begins with Gilgamesh ruling the city of Uruk. He learns about a wild man who is living out in the hills near the city. This wild man’s name is Enkidu. Gilgamesh gets Enkidu to come to the city, and the two become friends. They have many adventures together, and when Enkidu dies, Gilgamesh mourns his friend’s death, and wants to know how he himself can live forever. Gilgamesh finds out that he can become immortal if he can stay awake for a week watching a particular plant. But he falls asleep in the end, and goes back to his city realizing that everyone has to die sometime. Also included in the epic is a legend of the flood, which is very similar to the great flood that is described in the Bible. 

               The ancient city state of Elba in Northern Syria was a major trading centre that rose to become a great economic power. Part of Elba’s prosperity stemmed from its agricultural hinterland, in the rich plain of Northern Syria, where barley, wheat, olives, figs, grapes, pomegranates, and flax were grown. Cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs were also raised. The city proper was a manufacturing and distribution centre. Linen and wool, including damask cloth, were the main products. Trade was the key to Ebla’s economy. Cloth, manufactured goods, and olive oil were its main exports. Imports included gold, silver, copper, tin, precious stones, and sheep. Because of its geographic location, Ebla grew wealthy on trade. 

               Mari became a flourishing city state from about 2900 BC. It enjoyed considerable prosperity, and became an important centre for trade also. The temple of Ishtar and other works of art show that Mari was at this time an artistic centre with a highly developed style of its own. Excavations revealed the remains of a 275 room palace covering 2.5 hectares, with a great library stacked with 20,000 cuneiform tablets.

               The Kingdom of Ugarit, which flourished in the Bronze Age, dates back much further than 3000 BC. It prospered and flourished for a few hundred years, as a centre of trade linking Mesopotamia with the Minoans of Crete. Ugarit also shipped cedar wood to the Egyptian pharaohs. It was famous for its bronze workings as well, and its considerable wealth was reflected in the magnificence of its royal palace and in its gold and silver jewellery, bronze statues, and ornate bowls made from precious metals.

               The Akkadians were a people living on the Arabic peninsula, during the great flourishing period of the Sumerian city-states. In 2340 BC, the great Akkadian military leader, Sargon, conquered Sumer, and built an Akkadian Empire stretching over most of the Sumerian city-states. According to a folk tale, Sargon was a self-made man of humble origins, who became one of the earliest of the world’s great empire builders.

               Sargon made Akkadian the official language of his empire, standardized weights and measures, encouraged trade, and improved the management of water resources. Sargon also brought to West Asia the new idea that a king should be succeeded by his sons. Before this, the new king had been elected by the rich men of each city.

               Sargon based his empire in the city of Akkad, which became the basis of the name of his people. This great capital later became the city of Babylon, which was the commercial and cultural centre of the Middle East. 

               Uruk was a major city in Mesopotamia. It existed around the fifth millennium BC, and was probably the largest city in the world at that time. It was a city famous for its huge monuments that included temples and palaces. Excavations have shown that it was an urban settlement with temples, platforms, ziggurats, and cemeteries, enclosed in a fortification ramp almost ten kilometres in circumference. Uruk was an important centre for religion and science as well, which is confirmed by the thousands of clay tablets that have been dug up at the site.

               The city of Ur was an important Sumerian city state between 2025-1738 BC. It had four main residential areas in the city, and included homes, with baked mud brick foundations arranged along long, narrow winding streets and alleyways. Ur is famous for its burial tombs, which were magnificently furnished. Burials at Ur give us insights into people’s social standing. Kings and queens were buried with treasure. Wealthy people were buried with less.

               Lagash was one of the most important capital cities in ancient Sumer, located midway between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in Southeastern Iraq. The inhabitants of Lagash believed in many gods and goddesses. Temples were built and dedicated to a god or goddess. Each deity served a different purpose. Lagash’s kings and their wives reigned over an economy that was ruled by a temple economy.

               The Sumerians lived in the area between the Tigris and the Euphrates in West Asia. The Sumerian civilization probably began around 4000 BC. In the beginning, the Sumerians were farmers. They grew crops, and stored food for times of need. They began big irrigation projects, digging canals and ditches to bring water from the Tigris and the Euphrates to the land between them, so people could grow food there. In this way, more people could live on the same amount of land.

               As more people settled on the land, the ancient Sumerians built many cities along the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers. Archaeologists believe that their largest city, the city of Ur, had a population of around 24,000 residents.

               The ancient Sumerians were very smart. They invented, amongst other things, the wheel, the sailboat, and the first written language, frying pans, razors, cosmetic sets, shepherd’s pipes, harps, kilns to bake bricks and pottery, as well as bronze hand tools like hammers and axes, and the plough.

               They invented a system of mathematics based on the number 60. Today, we divide an hour into 60 minutes, and a minute into 60 seconds. Now, don’t you agree that the Sumerians were truly amazing?

               The river valley between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris is known as Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia is often called ‘the cradle of human civilization’, because it is actually the birthplace of a number of civilizations in history. One of the reasons why the earliest humans decided to settle here was that the land was very, very fertile indeed. Even before the civilizations of Rome, Greece or Egypt came into being, there existed a much more advanced civilization in this region in 4000 BC, known as the Sumerian civilization.

               Agriculture first drew the earliest people to the banks of Mesopotamia’s rivers. But, as they figured out how to reroute some of the water through canals, they were able to irrigate fields farther away. When the food supply became capable of supporting large numbers of people, cities began to develop. As cities grew, and food became plentiful, it became necessary to keep records and this led to the invention of writing, which was a very important step in the development of civilization. 

               We know about ancient civilizations on the Anatolian plateau from murals, and excavations of sites at Gobekli Tepe and Nevali Cori. The mural paintings at Catal Huyuk are the oldest in the world on human built structures. The animals shown have been identified as bulls, horses, stag deer, bear and wild boar. The figures and scenes that are depicted suggest that hunting was very important at that time.

               At a place called Gobekli Tepe, archeologists have discovered massive carved stones about 11,000 years old, crafted and arranged by prehistoric people who had not yet developed metal tools. They believe that this is the site of the world’s oldest temple.

               Discoveries of settlements at Nevali, Cayonu, Hacilar, and Hoca Cesme all are evidence that the Anatolian plateau was the home of the most ancient civilizations.

               Anatolia is the portion of Turkey that extends from the Bosphorus and Aegean coast eastward to the borders of the Soviet Union, Iran, and Iraq. Because of its strategic location, at the intersection of Asia and Europe, Anatolia has been the centre of several civilizations, since prehistoric times. One of the first of these civilizations was at Catal Huyuk. It existed around the 7th millennium BC and was located in Central Anatolia.

               Catal Huyuk was one of the world’s first towns. Its houses were made of mud bricks, and were built touching against each other. They did not have doors, and houses were entered through hatches in roofs. Since, houses were built touching each other, the roofs must have acted as streets!

               The people of Catal Huyuk made clothes woven from wool. They also wore jewellery made of stone, bone and shell, and wove baskets of reeds. They made pottery, and they used obsidian, a hard volcanic rock to make tools and weapons. Craftsmen made dishes and boxes of wood.

               Catal Huyuk was abandoned about 5,000 BC, and then forgotten for thousands of years, till it was rediscovered by James Mellaart in 1958.

               You will find that the first civilizations were built around rivers. Do you know why? One reason was that rivers ensured a supply of water for farming, building, and washing, drinking, and cooking. The flood-waters of rivers made the land very fertile, and the rivers made transportation easy. Consequently, rivers helped in the development of trade and commerce. Rivers also inspired new technological and economic innovations and developments, like dams, dykes, sluices and canals. As a result, between 3000 and 2000 BC, river valley civilizations formed independently of each other along the Indus, the Nile, the Tigris and Euphrates, and the Yellow Rivers. 

               Scientists say that the Earth may be as many as six billion years old, and that human beings in their present form first appeared around 100,000 years ago in Africa. The earliest humans lived by hunting, fishing, and collecting edible roots and fruits. Only some 10,000 years ago did they learn to cultivate plants, herd animals, and make airtight pottery for storage. These discoveries transformed them from gatherers to producers, and allowed them to grow in number and to lead a settled life. People also migrated from Africa to other parts of the world, and adapted to new climates and new conditions.

               Gradually, humans learned how to increase harvests through irrigation and other methods, making possible much larger populations. They came together in towns, cities, and other centres, where they erected impressive structures and where industry and commerce flourished. In time, different civilizations came into existence in various parts of the world.