Category Social Sciences

Why is the Anatolian plateau important?

               Anatolia is the portion of Turkey that extends from the Bosphorus and Aegean coast eastward to the borders of the Soviet Union, Iran, and Iraq. Because of its strategic location, at the intersection of Asia and Europe, Anatolia has been the centre of several civilizations, since prehistoric times. One of the first of these civilizations was at Catal Huyuk. It existed around the 7th millennium BC and was located in Central Anatolia.

               Catal Huyuk was one of the world’s first towns. Its houses were made of mud bricks, and were built touching against each other. They did not have doors, and houses were entered through hatches in roofs. Since, houses were built touching each other, the roofs must have acted as streets!

               The people of Catal Huyuk made clothes woven from wool. They also wore jewellery made of stone, bone and shell, and wove baskets of reeds. They made pottery, and they used obsidian, a hard volcanic rock to make tools and weapons. Craftsmen made dishes and boxes of wood.

               Catal Huyuk was abandoned about 5,000 BC, and then forgotten for thousands of years, till it was rediscovered by James Mellaart in 1958.

 

Why did the first civilizations appear near rivers and water bodies?

               You will find that the first civilizations were built around rivers. Do you know why? One reason was that rivers ensured a supply of water for farming, building, and washing, drinking, and cooking. The flood-waters of rivers made the land very fertile, and the rivers made transportation easy. Consequently, rivers helped in the development of trade and commerce. Rivers also inspired new technological and economic innovations and developments, like dams, dykes, sluices and canals. As a result, between 3000 and 2000 BC, river valley civilizations formed independently of each other along the Indus, the Nile, the Tigris and Euphrates, and the Yellow Rivers. 

How did civilization begin?

               Scientists say that the Earth may be as many as six billion years old, and that human beings in their present form first appeared around 100,000 years ago in Africa. The earliest humans lived by hunting, fishing, and collecting edible roots and fruits. Only some 10,000 years ago did they learn to cultivate plants, herd animals, and make airtight pottery for storage. These discoveries transformed them from gatherers to producers, and allowed them to grow in number and to lead a settled life. People also migrated from Africa to other parts of the world, and adapted to new climates and new conditions.

               Gradually, humans learned how to increase harvests through irrigation and other methods, making possible much larger populations. They came together in towns, cities, and other centres, where they erected impressive structures and where industry and commerce flourished. In time, different civilizations came into existence in various parts of the world.

Why was the First World War fought?

               The First World War was fought from 1914 to 1918. It is called a world war for the simple reason that all the major countries of the world were involved in it. In this war on one side were Britain, France and Russia called “The Allies” while on the other side were Germany, Austria and Bulgaria known as “Central Powers”. Later, USA joined the Allies while Turkey participated in the war from the other side. The war fought bitterly for four years resulted in the victory of the Allies. In the history of warfare, the First World War stands out prominently as during its course, battles were fought on land, in air and on sea. Britain used a great military weapon like “tank” in this war for the first time.

               As a background, we can mention that in the Franco—Prussian war of 1871, France was brought to her knees by Prussia (later known as Germany) who snatched from her two important provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. France resented this loss very much and harboured deep bitterness against Germany. France waited for an opportunity to take revenge against Germany. Imperialistic rivalries among the colony seeking powers of Europe, like England, France, Italy, Spain and Germany also helped in fouling the atmosphere and paved way for a war. In addition stock piling of powerful weapons by major countries of the world also created militant feelings among these nations surcharging the atmosphere.

               The immediate cause was however the murder of Austrian Prince Archduke Ferdinand by a Serb at Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. Austria squarely blamed Serbia for this crime, and sent an ultimatum which was ignored by Serbia on the instigation of Russia. As a result Austria declared war against Serbia on July 28, 1914. This led to the escalation of conflict and gradually drew all the major countries of Europe as active participants. Russia declared war on Turkey on 2nd November, 1914 and Britain and France also followed suit. On 7th May, 1915 Germans attacked and sunk an American ship which later led to the involvement of USA in the war. USA declared war on Germany on 16 April 1917. Interestingly, Japan also fought against Germany in this war. The war ended in 1918 following a treaty known as the “Treaty of Versailles”. 

What are political parties and pressure groups?

               The origin of social science and art of politics can be traced back to the times of Aristotle. In his opinion, politics was a prime subject which he used for finding an ideal set of rules for attitudes, values and firm beliefs of human society. In late 15th century a French philosopher Montaigne pointed out that ‘Liberty’ is the key concern of all human beings.

               Later thinkers like John Stuart Mill and Karl Marx made significant contributions to the study of politics — although in a different ideological leanings. These beliefs or ideas ultimately led to the formation of political parties or groups. Now the question arises: what are the goals and functions of an ideal political party? According to social scientists political parties serve as dynamic agents within different political systems. They formulate policies of a government of their own party and set goals for the welfare of society which according to them would be best suited for their people. All political parties are supposed to bridge the gaps between rulers and the ruled. The mode of political systems however, differs from country to country. 

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What are different National Awards?

               National Awards can be divided mainly into four groups; (a) Civilian Awards (b) Gallantry Awards (c) Distinguished Service Awards and (d) Arjuna Awards. 

Civilian Awards

There are four civilian awards; (i) Bharat Ratna (ii) Padma Vibhushan (iii) Padma Bhushan and (iv) Padma Shri.

(i) Bharat Ratna: This is the highest award in India and is given for exceptional work for the advancement of Art, Literature and Science and in recognition of public service of the highest order. It was awarded for the first time in 1954 and the recipients in 1954 were C. Rajagopalachari, S. Radhakrishnan and C.V. Raman.

The decoration is in the form of a peepal leaf, about 5.8 cm long, 4.7 cm wide and 3.1 mm thick. It is of toned bronze. On one side there is a replica of the sun below which the words Bharat Ratna are inscribed in Hindi. On the other side are the National Emblem and the motto also in Hindi. The emblem, the sun and the rim, are of platinum.

(ii) Padma Vibhushan: This award is given for exceptional and distinguished services in any field, including outstanding services rendered by government officials.

The decoration is a circular design, with a geometrical pattern superimposed on the circle. The diameter of the circular part is 4.4 cm and thickness about 0.6 mm. On one side there is a lotus flower with the ascription Padma Vibhushan in Hindi. On the other side are the National Emblem and motto. It is of toned bronze. All embossing on either side of the decoration is in white gold.

(iii) Padma Bhushan: This award is given for distinguished services of a high order in any field including services rendered by government personnel. It has the same design as the ‘Padma Vibhushan’. On one side the word “Padma” appears above and the word “Bhushan” below the lotus flower. All embossing on either side of the decoration is in standard gold.

(iv) Padma Shri: This award is given for distinguished services in any field including services rendered by government personnel. Above the lotus, the word ‘Padma’ and below, the word ‘Shri’ is embossed in Hindi. On one side there is a geometrical pattern. All embossing on either side is in stainless steel.

All these awards are presented on the Republic Day.

 

Gallantry Awards

The Gallantry awards are six in number and awarded to the personnel of the armed forces for their acts of bravery and sacrifice for the security and welfare of the nation.

  1. Param Vir Chakra: It is the highest decoration of valour awarded for the most conspicuous bravery or self-sacrifice in fighting the enemy on land, sea or air. The decoration is made of bronze and is circular in shape. On this four replicas of ‘Indra’s -Vajra’ are embossed round the state emblem in the centre. On the other side the words ‘Param Vir Chakra’ are embossed both in Hindi and English with lotus flowers in the middle.
  2.  Maha Vir Chakra: The medal is made of standard silver and is circular in shape. Embossed on the obverse is a five pointed star and on the reverse the word ‘Maha Vir Chakra’ in Hindi and English with two lotus flowers in the middle. It is the second highest decoration.
  3. Vir Chakra: This is the third highest award for acts of conspicuous gallantry. The medal is circular in shape and made of standard silver. Embossed on the obverse is a five pointed star with an ‘Ashoka Chakra’ in the middle and on the reverse the word ‘Vir Chakra’ both in Hindi and English with two lotus flowers in the middle.
  4. Ashoka Chakra: This award is given for conspicuous bravery or self-sacrifice. The Chakra is made of gilt gold and is circular in shape. On the obverse there is an embossed replica of Ashoka Chakra surrounded by a lotus wreath. Along the edge is patterned lotus leaves, flowers and buds. On the reverse, the word ‘Ashoka Chakra’ are embossed with lotus flowers in the intervening space.
  5. Kirti Chakra: This is given for conspicuous gallantry. Made of standard silver, it is circular in shape. The obverse and reverse are same as the ‘Ashoka Chakra’.
  6. Shaurya Chakra: This is awarded to the defence personnel for the act of gallantry. Its shape is like the Ashoka Chakra except that it is made of bronze. 

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